Among woody plants, grapevines are often described as highly vulnerable to water-stress induced cavitation with emboli forming at slight tensions. However, we found native embolism never exceeded 30% despite low xylem water potentials (Yx) for stems of field grown vines. The discrepancy between native embolism measurements and those of previous reports led us to assess vulnerability curve generation using four separate methods and alterations (i.e. segment length and with/without flushing to remove embolism prior to measurement) of each. Centrifuge, dehydration and air-injection methods, which rely on measurement of percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) in detached stems, were compared against non-invasive monitoring of xylem cavitation with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging. Short segment air-injection and flushed centrifuge stems reached >90 PLC at Yx of-0.5 and -1.5 MPa, respectively, whereas dehydration and longsegment air-injection measurements indicated no significant embolism at Yx > -2.0 MPa. Observations from NMR agreed with the dehydration and long segment air-injection methods, showing the majority of vessels were still waterfilled at Yx > -1.5 MPa. Our findings show V. vinifera stems are far less vulnerable to water stress-induced cavitation than previously reported, and dehydration and long segment air-injection techniques are more appropriate for long-vesseled species and organs.

In Vitis vinifera L. berries, the onset of ripening (known as "veraison") involves loss of turgor (P) in the mesocarp cells. We hypothesized that P loss was associated with an accumulation of apoplastic solutes in mesocarp tissue prior to veraison. Apoplastic sap was extracted from the mesocarp by centrifugation at the appropriate gravity to measure the apoplast solute potential (Psi (s) (A) ) and assay the sap composition. The Psi (s) (A) was about -0.2 MPa early in development, decreased about 1.0 MPa by veraison, and continued to decrease during ripening to almost -4.0 MPa by the end of berry development. Potassium, malate, tartrate, proline, glucose, fructose, and sucrose were quantified in apoplastic sap. The calculated contribution of these solutes was about 50% of the total Psi (s) (A) preveraison, but increased to about 75% as fructose and glucose accumulated during ripening. The contribution of the estimated matric potential to apoplast water potential decreased during development and was only 1.5% postveraison. We conclude that high concentrations of solutes accumulated in the mesocarp apoplast prior to veraison, and that P loss was a direct result of decreased Psi (s) (A) . Because Psi (s) (A) decreased before veraison, our findings suggest that apoplast solutes play an important role in the events of cellular metabolism that lead to the onset of ripening.

HighlightThe earliest events in ripening are decreases in turgor, softening, and increases in abscisic acid. Later events integral to regulating colour development include growth, further increases in abscisic acid, and sugar accumulation.

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