The majority of smallholder farming households in Cambodia are rurally based and rely on agriculture to support their livelihoods. However, in recent years, growth in the agriculture sector has stagnated with farmers facing several challenges including declining prices for traditional crops and irregular rainfall patterns. This has led to a need for farmers to diversify income sources with livestock promoted as a more viable livelihood activity, particularly the raising of cattle and poultry. However, uncertain profitability of livestock activities is a common perception by smallholders, especially where animals have not been traditionally viewed as a primary income source. To address this, information is required which compares the income and expenses associated with livestock raising to other on-farm activities and off-farm sources. This study reports on a survey of livelihood survey of 17 male and 21 female representatives of 20 households owning cattle in Cambodia, comparing the associated income and expenses of the various livelihood activities in the 12-month period from January to December 2016. Combined total household income from both on-farm and off-farm sources ranged from USD875 to 17730 with an average of USD6779, representing 51% and 49% from on-farm and off-farm activities, respectively. Cattle raising was the most common source of on-farm income (85%), contributing USD1064 and representing 22% of total household income. General household expenses, such as food and transportation (including expenses associated with off-farm employment), represented the majority of total household expenses (79%). Gross profit calculations indicated higher values for pig raising (USD1841.79), cattle (USD950.80) and non-rice crops (USD884) whilst the highest gross margin value was recorded for cattle (89.33%) followed by vegetables (85.27%) and non-rice crops (83.08%). Whilst wet season and dry season rice returned a negative gross profit value of USD197.27 and USD90.60 on average per household, respectively, both were ranked as most important for household consumption, followed by poultry, providing the main source of energy (rice) and protein (chicken meat) and sustaining household food requirements. The study concludes that although smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia undertake a diverse range of on-farm activities, as cattle raising provides a superior income source due to higher returns and lower variable costs, it could be promoted as a preferred livelihood activity by agencies conducting rural extension activities. Although consideration of available labour and monetary funds to invest in cattle raising is required, it was observed that income from off-farm sources may prove beneficial in providing the additional monetary funds to support cattle-raising activities and assist in providing generally poor smallholder households with enhanced economic resilience.

The offshore Louisiana outer shelf and upper slope are underlain by numerous allochthonous salt sheets which were laterally emplaced during the late Miocene and early Pliocene. Lateral salt emplacement involves a two-stage process. Initially, shallow salt sheets with thin carapaces of deep-water shales flow downdip like glaciers by low-angle gravity spreading. The condensed shale sections are deposited on bathymetrically high salt sheets and are then rafted downdip, resulting in repeated sections below the allochthonous salt. Although the glacier model explains the repeated sections, data indicate that another mechanism of salt translation becomes dominant after initial emplacement. Burial and confinement of the salt sheet initiates secondary salt diapirism, salt sheet segmentation, and rafting episodes. Sedimentary loading landward and above the sheet causes salt to flow laterally with shear concentrated at the base of salt. Compressional thrusts at the leading edge of salt sheets can be traced updip to the base of salt, and they continue under the salt as thrust faults. This basal shear zone includes compressional features within the sedimentary layer below salt. The sheared section below the salt is distinct from the supra-salt rafted condensed shale sections, and is defined as a highly overpressured interval between 400 and 2000’ thick, consisting of a series of thrust faults. The subthrust sedimentary interval below the salt can have overturned and repeated sections defined by paleontological assemblages. The shear zone may also extend into the base of salt and modify the geometry of the salt base, causing chevron or stair-stepped subcrops and sedimentary inclusions at the base of salt. These deformations cause an unusual rock rheology with pore pressures approaching fracture pressures within the basal shear zone, then diminishing with depth to a more regional pore pressure gradient.

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The Mahogany subsalt discovery is the petroleum industry’s first commercial subsalt oil development in the Gulf of Mexico. The discovery well tested 7,256 BOPD and 7.3 MMCFD on a 32/64” choke at 7,063 PSI flowing tubing pressure. The primary subsalt reservoir is a high-pressured oil sand with high permeability and porosity and has tremendous deliverability. The field is located 80 miles offshore Louisiana on Ship Shoal South Additions blocks 349/359. The structure is interpreted as a faulted anticline overlain by allochthonous salt. Prestack depth-migrated 3-D seismic data was integrated into a regional geologic model that was based on 2-D time-migrated data. Regionally, the area is characterized by multiple salt sheets, which form a salt canopy sutured east of Mahogany, and several older and deeper sheets are also identified. Subsalt depositional fairways can be approximated by mapping relative salt-induced paleo-bathymetry. Deepwater sand fairways are closely related to salt movements and extend under the salt sheets.

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