Aims: The goal of this study was to investigate diversity among Spanish–English bilingual university-level students’ reading outcomes and the impact of reading attitudes, motivation, and variation in language environment. Design: The current study included 50 Spanish–English bilingual undergraduate students, mean age 21.8 years, from a university in the western United States. Participants were administered a battery of standardized assessments including measures of executive function, English reading comprehension, working memory, non-verbal IQ, and questionnaires addressing language environment, language behaviour, and attitudes toward reading in English and Spanish. Data and analysis: Hierarchical linear regression models regressing reading performance on questionnaire responses were performed. Findings: Spanish–English bilingual university students showed differential reading comprehension outcomes, which were significantly predicted by differences in attitudes toward reading, extrinsic and/or instrumental motivation, and environmental language usage. A combined model of IQ, working memory, perceived English reading skills, and composite of positive attitudes toward reading in Spanish and English accounted for the most variance in reading comprehension scores, 38.5%, F(2,502), p = .03. Greater Spanish use for workplace customer communication significantly predicted higher English reading comprehension. Originality: Distinct from previous research, learners’ perceived value of Spanish reading and use of Spanish in the workplace accounted for variance in English reading outcomes. Significance: Our findings that individual and environmental factors influence variation in reading outcomes indicates further heterogeneity among Spanish–English bilingual university students, with potential implications for reading development and university success.

Research has yet to reach a definitive consensus on whether or how bilingualism confers benefits on Executive Function (EF): numerous studies show an EF advantage for bilinguals over monolinguals, while others indicate no significant differences. These inconsistencies demonstrate that the mechanisms behind a potential bilingualism-to-EF relationship remain unclear. Multiple factors likely impact EF outcomes among bilinguals, including proficiency and extent, type and environment of language usage. The current study explored EF skills among a relatively homogeneous sample of 50 Spanish-English bilingual young adults to provide insights into the environmental and individual characteristics that contribute to EF diversity. Hierarchical regression modeling revealed that more balanced bilingual language usage in specific home-based tasks (particularly TV watching), and higher self-reported ability in Spanish and English significantly predicted higher EF. Results support the developing empirical consensus that greater engagement in dual-language contexts bears a positive relationship to EF. The finding that watching TV with a balanced language ratio has a significant positive relationship to EF opens strong potential opportunities for bilinguals to access EF benefits with minimal effort.

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