Human alteration of the nitrogen (N) cycle has produced benefits for health and well-being, but excess N has altered many ecosystems and degraded air and water quality. US regulations mandate protection of the environment in terms that directly connect to ecosystem services. Here, we review the science quantifying effects of N on key ecosystem services, and compare the costs of N-related impacts or mitigation using the metric of cost per unit of N. Damage costs to the provision of clean air, reflected by impaired human respiratory health, are well characterized and fairly high (e.g. costs of ozone and particulate damages of $28 per kg NO x -N). Damage to services associated with productivity, biodiversity, recreation and clean water are less certain and although generally lower, these costs are quite variable (< $2.2-56 per kg N). In the current Chesapeake Bay restoration effort, for example, the collection of available damage costs clearly exceeds the projected abatement costs to reduce N loads to the Bay ($8-15 per kg N). Explicit consideration and accounting of effects on multiple ecosystem services provides decision-makers an integrated view of N sources, damages and abatement costs to address the significant challenges associated with reducing N pollution.

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This chapter traces the transition of New Zealand's food sector from two-tier greening (organic plus integrated production systems) to a predominant focus on integrated systems. This transition is then explained by linking it to shifts in agro-food governance in Europe and the emergence of food audit cultures, as exemplified by EurepGAP driven by European retailers. Preliminary insights are presented on the impact of EurepGAP on the kiwifruit industry. Two effects are observed with consequences for the broader politics of 'greening' foods: (1) organic food exports have slowed and are falling outside the powerful new audit cultures like EurepGAP; and (2) new food audit cultures are potentially going to dominate how sustainable management practices are both described and measured.

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This article explores the new legal framework for marine spatial planning (msp) in Portugal. The main focus of the analysis is on the drivers of msp processes, the consideration given to existing vs. new uses, and on the evaluation of alternatives, based on the u.s. experience, with a focus on perceptions of u.s. msp practitioners. The Portuguese framework for msp may lead to favoring new uses over existing ones and defines ambiguous criteria for the selection of alternatives that are mostly financial in nature. The article draws attention to the potential environmental, social and economic risks of improperly addressing competing marine uses in the new Portuguese msp framework.