Working memory capacity may be a critical factor that influences the effectiveness of collaborative learning; however, no studies have directly explored this effect. Using worked examples as learning tasks, Experiment 1 used a 2 (working memory capacity) × 2 (learning format) factorial design to examine the effects of collaborative learning versus individual learning of 4th-grade Chinese elementary school students with different working memory capacities. High-capacity learners displayed less working memory resource depletion and better transfer performance during collaborative learning than individual learning. In contrast, no differences were found among the low-capacity learners. Collaborative learning benefited high-capacity learners but not low-capacity learners, per our observations. To further optimize collaborative learning for low-capacity learners and expand the findings to heterogeneous collaborative learning, Experiment 2 adopted a 2 (member capacity) × 2 (group capacity) factorial design to explore the effects of member and group working memory capacity on collaborative learning in heterogeneous groups. High-capacity members displayed less working memory resource depletion and better far transfer performance in high-capacity groups compared to low-capacity groups. Simultaneously, all members had better near transfer performance in high-capacity groups compared to low-capacity groups. Both member and group working memory capacities influenced the effect of heterogeneous collaborative learning. However, low-capacity members only partially benefited from collaborative learning in high-capacity heterogeneous groups.

The no-subgoal-worked examples and the subgoal-worked examples are “one problem and two solutions.” Previous studies have found that the effect of subgoal-worked examples learning is better than that of no-subgoal-worked examples. However, there is still ambiguity around the subgoal-worked examples learning effect and mechanism of the subgoal labeling form. To address this issue, the current study recruited a total of 130 Chinese children (Mage = 8.78 years) to mathematical online learning under different worked example forms. The results revealed that, as compared with the no-subgoal-worked example, the subgoal-worked example increased primary school students’ working memory resource depletion. However, it did not improve their scores. Moreover, as compared with the subgoal-worked example, the focused subgoal-labeled worked example did not promote primary school students’ learning effectiveness in mathematics. However, the individual choice subgoal-labeled worked example improved primary school students’ near-transfer scores. It also reduced their mental effort and working memory resource depletion. It, therefore, appears to be a more effective subgoal-labeled worked example learning approach.