In this study, 9th-grade students (N ϭ 196) with a mean age of 14.7 years read a scientific text explaining the chemical process of doing laundry with soap and water and then took 3 tests. Students who were instructed to generate drawings during learning scored higher than students who only read on subsequent tests of transfer (d ϭ 0.91), retention (d ϭ 0.87), and drawing (d ϭ 2.00). For students who were instructed to generate drawings during learning, those who generated high-accuracy drawings (according to a median split) scored higher than students who generated low-accuracy drawings on subsequent tests of transfer (d ϭ 0.99), retention (d ϭ 0.79), and drawing (d ϭ 1.87); furthermore, drawing-accuracy scores during learning correlated with learning-outcome scores on transfer (r ϭ .57), retention (r ϭ .50), and drawing (r ϭ .82). Results suggest that drawing can serve as a generative activity and as a prognostic activity.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the effectiveness of prompts depends on their point of presentation time in self-regulated learning. First, based on the cognitive load theory, we investigated whether presenting prompts during the learning process instead of before has a positive effect on the process and outcome of self-regulated learning. Second, based on an integration of the cognitive load theory and a model of learning regulation goals, we investigated whether presenting prompts during learning and according to a theoretically optimal course of learning regulation has a positive effect on the process and outcome of self-regulated learning. In an experimental study with a one-factorial between-subjects design, with “point of presentation time of prompts” as independent variable and strategy use as well as learning outcome as dependent variables, 95 students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. During self-regulated learning in a computer-based learning environment on a physics domain, all conditions got the same prompts, whereas their point of presentation time differed (according to optimal regulation course/contrary to optimal regulation course/before learning). Results revealed that presenting prompts during learning instead of before had a positive effect on learning outcome. Results further revealed that adapting the presentation of prompts according to an optimal course of learning regulation did not have an additional positive effect on learning outcome. A mediator analysis showed that the effect of point of presentation time of prompts on learning outcome was mediated by strategy use during learning. Results are discussed with respect to new directions for assessment and support of self-regulated learning.

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