The mechanism by which amyloid-β (Aβ) produces brain dysfunction in patients with Alzheimer's disease is largely unknown. According to previous studies, Aβ might share perforating properties with gramicidin, a well-accepted membrane-disrupting peptide. Therefore, we hypothesize that the key steps leading to synaptotoxicity by Aβ and gramicidin involve peptide aggregation, pore formation, and calcium dysregulation. Here, we show that Aβ and gramicidin form aggregates enriched in β-sheet structures using electron microscopy, and Thioflavin and Congo Red staining techniques. Also, we found that Aβ and gramicidin display fairly similar actions in hippocampal cell membranes, i.e. inducing Ca(2+) entry and synaptoxicity characterized by the loss of synaptic proteins and a decrease in neuronal viability. These effects were not observed in a Ca(2+) free solution, indicating that both Aβ and gramicidin induce neurotoxicity by a Ca(2+)-dependent mechanism. Using combined perforated patch clamp and imaging recordings, we found that only Aβ produced a perforation that progressed from a small (Cl(-)-selective pore) to a larger perforation that allowed the entry of fluorescent molecules. Therefore, based on these results, we propose that the perforation at the plasma membrane by Aβ is a dynamic process that is critical in producing neurotoxicity similar to that found in the brains of AD patients.

Extracellular and intracellular copper and zinc regulate synaptic activity and plasticity, which may impact brain functionality and human behavior. We have found that a metal coordinating molecule, Neocuproine, transiently increases free intracellular copper and zinc levels (i.e., min) in hippocampal neurons as monitored by Phen Green and FluoZin-3 fluorescence, respectively. The changes in free intracellular zinc induced by Neocuproine were abolished by the presence of a non-permeant copper chelator, Bathocuproine (BC), indicating that copper influx is needed for the action of Neocuproine on intracellular Zn levels. Moreover, Neocuproine decreased the mRNA levels of Synapsin and Dynamin, and did not affect the expression of Bassoon, tubulin or superoxide dismutase (SOD). Western blot analysis showed that protein levels of synapsin and dynamin were also down regulated in the presence of Neocuproine and that these changes were accompanied by a decrease in calcium transients and neuronal activity. Furthermore, Neocuproine decreased the number of active neurons, effect that was blocked by the presence of BC, indicating that copper influx is needed for the action of Neocuproine. We finally show that Neocuproine blocks the epileptiform-like activity induced by bicuculline in hippocampal neurons. Collectively, our data indicates that presynaptic protein configuration and function of primary hippocampal neurons is sensitive to transient changes in transition metal homeostasis. Therefore, small molecules able to coordinate transition metals and penetrate the blood-brain barrier might modify neurotransmission at the Central Nervous System (CNS). This might be useful to establish therapeutic approaches to control the neuronal hyperexcitabiltity observed in brain conditions that are associated to copper dyshomeotasis such as Alzheimer’s and Menkes diseases. Our work also opens a new avenue to find novel and effective antiepilepsy drugs based in metal coordinating molecules.