Fundus autofluorescence (FAF), a relatively new imaging modality, focuses on the fluorescent properties of pigments in the retina to generate images that help us view various disease processes from a different perspective. It aids us in the understanding of the pathophysiology of different retinal disorders. Recently, FAF imaging is being used commonly to help us in the diagnosis, prognosis as well as in determining the treatment response of various retinal disorders. It generates an image based on the distribution pattern of a fluorescent pigment called lipofuscin. Knowing the distribution pattern of lipofuscin in the normal retina is key to understanding an FAF image representing a retinal pathology. Like most other imaging modalities, FAF comes with its own limitations, taking steps to overcome these limitations will be of utmost importance in using this imaging modality to its fullest potential.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most common cause of visual loss among working age individuals. Diabetic macular edema (DME) is an important complication of DR that affects around one third of the patients with DR. Several treatments have been approved for DME ranging from blood pressure and glycemic control to photocoagulation and more recently the use of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antagonists. The index review discusses aflibercept (EYLEA(®)-Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Tarrytown, New York, NY, and Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceuticals, Berlin, Germany) in the context of other VEGF antagonists currently available for the treatment of DME. A systematic search of literature was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar with no limitation on language or year of publication. Pre-clinical studies of aflibercept have shown a higher affinity of this molecule for vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) along with a longer duration of action as compared to other VEGF antagonists. Recent clinical trials have shown visual outcome results for aflibercept to be similarly favorable as compared to other available agents with the added benefit of fewer required injections and less frequent monitoring. Aflibercept presents a potential exciting new addition to the armamentarium of current VEGF antagonists available for the treatment of DME and other retinal vascular diseases. However, further studies are indicated to confirm the role, safety, and efficacy of aflibercept for DME.

In conjunction with control of systemic disease, PDT and/or focal laser photocoagulation can be successful in resolving subretinal fluid secondary to lupus choroidopathy.

BackgroundChoroidal thickness (CTh) and choroidal vessel diameter (VD) in the Haler’s layer were evaluated as markers of inflammatory insult in non-infectious uveitis (NIU). Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (Spectralis®, Heidelberg Engineering Inc.) scans were acquired from 23 normal subjects (39 eyes – group 1), 7 subjects with high myopia (14 eyes – group 2), and 19 patients with NIU (23 eyes – group 3). In groups 1 and 2, CTh and VD were measured at 3 different points of the same horizontal OCT scan passing through the fovea and a mean calculated. Mean CTh and VD were calculated in 2 other locations, 2 mm superior and inferior from the chosen foveal horizontal scan. In group 3, three measurements of CTh and VD were obtained within 1 mm of a horizontal scan passing through a retinal lesion; mean CTh and VD were then computed. A ratio (R) between the VD and the corresponding CTh was calculated.ResultsGroup 1, 2 and 3 mean age was 29.6, 29.1 and 45.9 years, respectively. Sixteen normal subjects, three myopic subjects and six NIU patients were male.. Group 1 mean CTh did not differ from group 2 (261.6±45.6 vs. 260.2±50.6 µm µm; p>0.05); mean VD was marginally higher in Group 2 (159.8±32.2 vs. 163.2±33.2 µm; p>0.05). Group 3 demonstrated thinner CTh (193.6±54.6 µm) than Groups 1 and 2 (p = 0.02 and <0.001). Group 3 mean VD (123.6±37.4 µm) was also less than that in Groups 1 and 2; the difference was statistically significant only when compared to group 2, p = 0.01. R did not differ across groups (p-values >0.05), indicating that variations in CTh and VD followed the same trend.ConclusionsThe study reports potential quantitative OCT-derived parameters that may be explored in future trials of non-infectious uveitis. Thinning of choroid and decrease of vessel diameter are observed in patients with chronic NIU compared to controls.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12348-014-0014-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.