The present study evaluated the effect of mulberry vinegar (MV) on the regulation of the inflammatory responses using C6 glial cells. Treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ) induced the nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species generation, while pre‐incubation with MV inhibited these formations in a concentration‐dependent manner. MV treatment also decreased the production of pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), IL‐6, and tumor necrosis factor‐α in C6 glial cells stimulated by LPS/IFN‐γ. Compared to the LPS/IFN‐γ‐treated control group, the MV‐treated group exerts downregulation in the protein expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase‐2, through inhibition of nuclear factor‐κB activation. Protein expressions of glial fibrillary acidic protein and ionized calcium‐binding adapter molecule 1 were also decreased in the MV‐treated group. These findings suggest that MV prevents neuroinflammation by regulating the NF‐κB signaling pathway and glial activation. Practical application Mulberry fruits (Morus alba L.) have been commonly consumed as juice or jam. It is a rich source of anthocyanins that might be associated with beneficial effects on human health, including the anti‐oxidant, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐obesity, and anti‐diabetic effects. Mulberry vinegar was produced by alcohol and acetic fermentation of mulberry juice, and they possessed a protective effect against LPS/IFN‐γ‐stimulated inflammatory responses in glial cells via regulation of glial activation and NF‐κB signaling pathway (i.e., downregulation of iNOS, COX‐2, TLR4, p‐IκB, and NF‐κB p65 protein expressions). Although further research especially animal and clinical trials are still necessary, the present study will be helpful to scale‐up the production of functional vinegar with neuroprotective and anti‐inflammatory properties using mulberry.

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In our study, we investigated whether Aster yomena (Kitam.) Honda (AY) improved cognitive impairment which results from consumption of high-fat diet (HFD). When ethyl acetate fraction from AY (EFAY) was administered to C57BL/6J mice fed with 60% HFD, EFAY significantly enhanced cognitive ability that was impaired by HFD in T-maze test and novel object recognition test. Furthermore, EFAY increased memory and learning functions that were proven during Morris water maze test. We further elucidated protective mechanisms of EFAY against cognitive decline that resulted from obesity by western blotting. In the brain, HFD increased neuronal inflammation and disturbed insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1)/Akt pathway. However, EFAY significantly downregulated inflammation-related protein expressions such as nuclear factor-κB interleukin-1β, inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, compared with the HFD-fed control group. Furthermore, the IRS-1/Akt pathway was regulated by EFAY, indicating that EFAY ameliorated insulin resistance in the brain. Practical applicationsObesity and its complications increase the risk for developing cognitive dysfunction such as dementia. Administration of ethyl acetate fraction from AY (EFAY)-attenuated cognitive and memory impairment by inhibitions of neuronal oxidative stress and low-grade chronic inflammation in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced cognitive impairment mouse model. In addition, EFAY-administered mice disturbed cerebral insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1)/Akt pathway. These data suggest that EFAY-improved cognitive impairment induced by HFD through modulation of insulin resistance and inflammation. Therefore, we proposed that AY could be a potential agent to prevent cognitive dysfunction induced by obesity and insulin resistance.

In this study, we investigated the physicochemical characteristics and antioxidant activity of fermented vinegar using onion and black onion. When the onion and black onion were fermented in alcohol for 8 days, the alcohol content in both onion vinegar (OV) and black onion vinegar (BV) increased, whereas their sugar content decreased. The alcohol content was higher in OV than that in BV. When the onion and black onion were fermented in acetic acid for 20 days, the pH of both OV and BV decreased, whereas their total acidity increased. After fermentation, the main free sugars of OV and BV were fructose and glucose, and they were higher in BV than in OV. The major organic acids in OV and BV were acetic acid and malic acid, and the content of acetic acid was higher in BV than that in OV. In addition, OV and BV increased 1,1'-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS + ) radical scavenging activities in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, DPPH and ABTS + radical scavenging activities were greater in black onion juice than in onion juice. The BV showed a higher DPPH and ABTS + radical scavenging activities than OV. Therefore, BV is the more suitable antioxidant functional vinegar through radical scavenging activity.

In the present study, we investigated the physicochemical characteristics and antioxidant activity of kimchi during the fermentation process. Kimchi was fermented at 18.5 o C, then after one day, the storage temperature was changed to 5 o C without fresh kimchi (Fresh; pH 5.6, total acidity 0.3%), which obtained optimum-ripened kimchi (OptR; pH 4.3, total acidity 0.64%), and over-ripened kimchi (OvR; pH 3.8, total acidity 1.24%). As a result, the glucosinolates content of the kimchi was increased during the fermentation process. Among the glucosinolates, glucoraphanin possesses the highest amounts in kimchi. In addition, the contents of sulforaphane and total polyphenol, which are common antioxidant compounds, were increased during the fermentation process. To evaluate the antioxidant activities of Fresh, OptR, and OvR, we measured 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl (•OH) radicals radical scavenging activity in vitro. Fresh, OptR, and OvR exerted DPPH and •OH radical scavenging activities dose-dependently. In particular, the •OH radical scavenging activities of OptR and OvR were higher than that of Fresh. Therefore, we suggest that kimchi at the ripe and over-ripe stage is considered to have high antioxidant activity by increasing glucosinolate, sulforaphane, and total polyphenols, compared with fresh kimchi.