Hippocrates' treatise On Wounds in the Head represents an excellent source of information regarding the extent of experience with head injuries in classical antiquity. On the basis of clinical observation, the great physician gives an accurate description of the external appearance and consistency of the cranium. Fractures of the cranium are divided into six main categories, each of which is discussed separately, regarding its mechanism, clinical assessment, and treatment. The medical history and clinical evaluation are considered the most important factors when dealing with cranial trauma. Trepanation, a neurosurgical procedure still in practice today, is presented in detail. As a whole, the treatise, the first written work in medical history dealing exclusively with cranial trauma, reveals that Hippocrates was a pioneer in treating head injuries.

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The field of peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) is now experiencing a phase of rapid growth in number of patients, number of implanters, number of indications, and procedure types. This, however, appears to be only a beginning of major developments that could revolutionize the field of PNS. It is expected that the progress in PNS will continue simultaneously in several directions as new indications, new stimulation targets and new device designs evolve in the foreseeable future. Responding to a major need for safe and effective pain treatments and following a general trend toward less-invasive and nondestructive interventions, PNS has the potential of becoming a premier pain-relieving modality that will be used instead of or in combination with existing more established approaches such as spinal cord stimulation and pharmacological pain control. Recent technological advancements are cause for considerable optimism regarding the development of PNS and are likely to be a beginning of a major overhaul in our perception of PNS approaches. Expanding the number of applications will without question strengthen the field of PNS. The turning point, however, will not occur until sufficient scientific evidence is gathered to unequivocally prove its safety, clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness, and when PNS applications become officially endorsed through regulatory approval of each indication. Such changes will allow implanters to use approved devices for approved indications--instead of the contemporary 'off-label' use--and at the same time give device manufacturers a chance to market these devices and support education on their appropriate use.