Limited funding is a major barrier to implementing ambitious global restoration commitments, so reducing restoration costs is essential to upscale restoration. The lack of rigorous analyses about the major components and drivers of restoration costs limit the development of alternatives to reduce costs and the selection of the most cost-effective methods to achieve restoration goals. We conducted detailed restoration cost assessments for the three most widespread biomes in Brazil (Amazon, Cerrado, and Atlantic Forest) and estimated the restoration costs associated with implementing Brazil's National Plan for Native Vegetation Recovery (12M hectares). Most surveys (60-90%) reported using the costly methods of planting seedlings or sowing seeds throughout the site, regardless of the biome. Natural regeneration and assisted regeneration approaches were an order of magnitude cheaper but were reported in < 15% of projects. The vast majority of tree planting and direct seeding costs were incurred during the implementation phase, and nearly 80% of projects ended maintenance within 30 months. We estimated a price tag of US$0.7-1.2 billion per year until 2030 to implement Brazil's restoration plan depending on the area that recovers through natural regeneration. Our results offer valuable insights for developing strategies to make restoration cheaper and to increase its cost-effectiveness for achieving diverse benefits in Brazilian ecosystems. Our survey also provides a starting point for sound assessments of restoration costs and their drivers in other biomes, which are needed to reduce the financial barriers to scaling up restoration at a global scale.

Direct seeding is a promising method for reducing restoration costs, but methodological adjustments are still needed to reduce the uncertainties to achieve a desired seedling density in the field. Here, we investigated the technical approaches and outcomes of direct seeding of fast-growing native trees for cost-effective restoration of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Sixteen tree species were manually sown at three seeding densities in planting lines prepared with a subsoiler, in two experimental areas, which were weeded with hoes and had leaf-cutter ants controlled with insecticide baits. Seedling density was monitored for 30, 90, and 180 days after sowing. No substantial change in tree density was observed 30 days after sowing, thus allowing fast corrective actions to adjust tree density. Only a minor proportion of the sown viable seeds resulted in established seedlings at 180 days (4-12% for the community; approximately 25% for the species with the best performance). However, tree density was high (6,000 on average; approximately 1,400-13,000 trees/ha) and allowed an effective canopy development. Overall, seedling density was linearly and positively associated with seeding density, was highly influenced by the species used, and was higher in the soil with higher sum of bases. Buying seeds would be, for most species, less costly than buying nursery-grown seedlings for achieving the expected tree densities in the field. These results evidence the potential of direct seeding for reducing restoration costs, as well as the need to select species with better performance and adjust seeding densities to optimize the use of this method. Implications for Practice• Direct seeding of fast-growing native trees is a cost-effective approach for a rapid recovery of a forest canopy in restoration sites. • Direct seeding of fast-growing native trees shows better establishment in soils with higher sum of bases, so seeding densities can be lower. • Plant functional traits as seed size and association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria may improve tree species establishment in direct seeding. • Direct seeding of species with rapid germination allows anticipating corrective actions resulted from failures in seedling densities; hence, direct seeding can be used as a first try to recover native forest cover at low costs.

Resumo -O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a sensibilidade de espécies nativas usadas em recuperação de áreas degradadas aos herbicidas setoxidim, isoxaflutol e bentazon. As espécies estudadas foram Senna multijuga, Guazuma ulmifolia e Croton urucurana. Os tratamentos de herbicida consistiram de uma testemunha (sem aplicação) e aplicação de um quarto, metade, uma vez, duas vezes e quatro vezes a dose recomendada. As doses recomendadas são 184 g ha -¹ de setoxidim, 37,5 g ha -¹ de isoxaflutol e 720 g ha -¹ de bentazon. Avaliaram-se os sintomas de fitotoxicidade, crescimento em altura, acréscimo no número de folhas e massa de matéria seca de folhas. Em outros experimentos, as doses recomendadas dos mesmos herbicidas foram aplicadas em outras 22 espécies arbóreas nativas, nas quais avaliou-se a massa de matéria seca de folhas. O delineamento experimental dos experimentos foi o inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. Cada parcela experimental se constituiu de uma muda em estádio inicial de desenvolvimento. Os herbicidas não provocaram a morte das mudas, embora todas tenham apresentado sintomas de fitotoxicidade. A aplicação de isoxaflutol reduziu a massa de matéria seca das folhas em 20% das espécies, a aplicação de bentazon, em uma espécie, e a aplicação de setoxidim não reduziu a massa de matéria seca das folhas de nenhuma espécie.Termos para indexação: fitotoxicidade, herbicidas seletivos, recuperação de áreas degradadas, reflorestamentos, restauração florestal. Selectivity of the herbicides sethoxydim, isoxaflutole and bentazon on native tree speciesAbstract -The objective of this work was to evaluate the sensitivity of native tree species used in the recovery of degraded land to the herbicides sethoxydim, isoxaflutole and bentazon. The species studied were Senna multijuga, Guazuma ulmifolia and Croton urucurana, and the treatment applied comprised one control sample (no herbicides were applied) and the application of the herbicides at one fourth, half, one, two and fourfold the recommended dose (sethoxydim: 184 g ha -¹, isoxaflutole: 37.5 g ha -¹, bentazon: 720 g ha -¹). Phytotoxicity symptoms, growth in length, increase in leaf number, and leaf dry mass were evaluated. In another experiments, the recommended doses of the same herbicides were applied to other 22 native tree species, for which the leaf dry mass was evaluated. The experiments were carried out in completely randomized design with four replicates. Each experimental plot comprised one sapling in initial developmental stage. The herbicides did not cause saplings death, even though all of them showed phytotoxicity symptoms. Herbicide application reduced the leaf dry mass as follows: isoxaflutole, 20% of the species; bentazon, one of the species; and sethoxydim did not reduce leaf dry mass in any of the species.

-(Comparing techniques to restore the woody Cerrado vegetation in abandoned pastures). Cerrado restoration has been a challenge for science and practice, which depends on experimentation. We compared the ecological efficacy and costs of direct seeding in rows, broadcast seeding, planting nursery-raised seedlings, and assisted natural or passive regeneration, to restore the Cerrado vegetation in old pastures at Canarana, MT. After 22 months, we recorded 112 woody species in the entire experimental area, from which only 16 were planted, demonstrating the high resilience of Cerrado vegetation in abandoned pastures. Richness did not differ among treatments, but direct seeding resulted in high dominance of a single species and low diversity. On the other hand, direct seeding in rows provided higher woody plant density than the other treatments. The higher costs of planting seedlings did not result in either higher richness or density. Resilience, costs and the restoration goal (recovery, commercial exploitation, or biodiversity) lead to different decisions among restoration techniques for Cerrado vegetation. Keywords: direct seeding, natural regeneration, resilience, restoration costs, savanna RESUMO -(Comparação de técnicas para restauração da vegetação lenhosa de Cerrado em pastagens abandonadas).Restaurar o Cerrado é um desafio para a ciência e a prática, que depende de experimentação. Comparamos, pela eficácia ecológica e custos, a semeadura direta em linhas ou a lanço, plantio de mudas e regeneração natural assistida ou passiva, para restaurar a vegetação de Cerrado em pastos abandonados em Canarana, MT. Após 22 meses, registramos 112 espécies lenhosas na área experimental como um todo, 16 das quais foram plantadas, evidenciando alta resiliência do Cerrado em pastos abandonados. A riqueza não diferiu entre tratamentos, mas a semeadura direta resultou em alta dominância de uma única espécie e baixa diversidade. Por outro lado, a semeadura direta em linhas proporcionou densidade superior aos outros tratamentos. O plantio de mudas, que apresentou custos mais elevados, não resultou em densidade ou riqueza superiores aos outros tratamentos. Resiliência, custos e metas (recobertura, exploração econômica ou biodiversidade) conduzem a diferentes decisões entre técnicas para a restauração do Cerrado.

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