В последние годы достигнут значительный прогресс в продлении и повышении надежности Ямальской сверхдлительной древесно-кольцевой хронологии. В статье представлена характеристика древесного материала, использованного для построения самой длительной для территории Субарктики абсолютно датированной хронологии по ширине годичных колец лиственницы сибирской протяженностью 8768 лет, охватывающей период с 6748 г. до н.э. по 2019 г. н.э. Обсуждаются экологические аспекты интерпретации распределения интервалов жизни сдатированных деревьев во времени и их расположения в пространстве. Оценены перспективы применения сдатированного материала и полученных хронологий в различных областях естественных и гуманитарных наук.

The article deals with the problem of trade relations between the Turkic Qaghanates and China in the VI—VIII centuries. At that time, the zone of contact between steppe Mongolia and the northern Chinese borders became a place of active trade exchange, in which nomads, Chinese, and Sogdians participated. The purpose of the article is to analyze trade relations along the territory of contact between China and the Turkic Qaghanate in the VI—VIII centuries and to identify the economic significance of the Turkic-Chinese frontier for international trade relations in the Central Asian region. As a result of the analysis, it was shown that the strengthening of the influence of the Turks and China in Central Asia contributed to the establishment of stable trade along the Silk Road. Based on the analysis of Chinese sources, it was revealed that Chinese silk and Turkic horses have become the main goods involved in the exchange in the frontier zone. As a result, the authors conclude that trade along the frontier zone stimulated the entire system of trade relations in Central Asia. China’s need for nomadic horses led to huge shipments of silk fabrics to the steppe. The Turkic qaghans sold the accumulated silk to the Sogdians, who distributed it in the markets of the Central Asian region, sent it to Iran and Byzantium. Thus, due to trade, a symbiosis of China and the steppe region was created, international contacts intensified.

Based on the analysis of the frequency of anomalous anatomical structures in the wood of Siberian larch and Siberian spruce (frost rings, light rings, and false rings, as well as missing and narrow rings), we reconstructed a timeline of climatic extremes (summer frosts, sharp multiday decreases in air temperature during the growing season, and low average summer temperatures) in Yamal (Western Siberia) over the last 4500 years. In total, 229 years were determined to have experienced extreme events. The most significant temperature extremes were recorded in 2053, 1935, 1647, 1626, 1553, 1538, 1410, 1401, 982, 919, 883 BCE, 143, 404, 543, 640, 1209, 1440, 1453, 1466, 1481, 1601 and 1818 CE. These dates with extrema observed in Yamal corrobarated with tree ring data from other regions and revealed several coincidences. That is, in these years, the observed extremes appeared to have been on a global rather than a regional scale. Moreover, these dates coincided with traces of large volcanic eruptions found in ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica, dated to approximately the same years. Therefore, the cause of the extreme summer cooling on a global scale, in most cases, can be linked to large volcanic eruptions.

No abstract

Maritime trade was an important part of the Russian-Chinese trade in the second half of the 19th century. During this period, the Voluntary fleet began transporting cargo between Russian and Chinese ports and the maritime transit system was created. Using the system analysis, the article analyzes the structure of maritime trade and demonstrates the model of the sea transit system of Russian-Chinese trade in the 1880s and 1890s. The main structural elements of maritime trade were the direction in which goods were transited, the conditions for cargo transportation, the interaction of the Voluntary fleet and Russian trading houses in China, competition for freight rates in Chinese ports, organizational issues, and the content of trade. The correlation of these features shows the construction of the maritime transit system. In conclusion, the author demonstrates the main advantages of sea transit over land and the main disadvantages of this direction. The maritime transit system was more effective than the transcontinental Russian-Chinese trade. By the sea, Chinese tea was delivered to the Russian market quickly and cheaply. At the same time, Russia did not have a product that could be sent to China by sea. This was the main problem of the Russia-Chinese maritime trade in the second half of 19th century. Thus, the study demonstrates a combination of levels of a new methodological approach to the history of trade in Russia and China, thereby enriching the historiography of the theme.