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This briefing paper on interoperability as a pro-competition policy tool is based on a synthesis of recent comprehensive policy reviews of digital competition in major economies, and related academic literature, focusing on areas of emerging consensus while noting important disagreements. It draws particularly on the Vestager, Furman and Stigler reviews and UK Competition and Markets Authority’s study on digital advertising.This is the first of a series of three papers. The second paper will consider interoperability in practice, looking in detail at the technical implications. The third paper will analyse the impact of interoperability on phenomena such as privacy and disinformation (preliminary versions of which appear in this first review.) These further papers will draw more heavily on interviews with software developers, platform operators, government officials, and academic and civil society experts working in this field.

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CERT computer emergency response team CNI critical national infrastructure CRA communications (including broadcasting) regulatory authority/agency CSIRT computer security incident response team DDoS distributed denial of service -a type of online attack where a site and its ISP are flooded with traffic from other devices across the internet, slowing down or stopping the site from responding to legitimate users DPA data protection authority (or commission), referred to in some countries as an information or privacy commissioner, responsible for enforcing data protection and privacy laws DRE direct recording electronic (machine) -a type of voting machine that records a voter's choice in a polling station

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