The complete sequence of the 16,569-base pair human mitochondrial genome is presented. The genes for the 12S and 16S rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, cytochrome c oxidase subunits I, II and III, ATPase subunit 6, cytochrome b and eight other predicted protein coding genes have been located. The sequence shows extreme economy in that the genes have none or only a few noncoding bases between them, and in many cases the termination codons are not coded in the DNA but are created post-transcriptionally by polyadenylation of the mRNAs.

No abstract

The multiplicity of proteins compared with genes in mammals owes much to alternative splicing. Splicing signals are so subtle and complex that small perturbations may allow the production of new mRNA variants. However, the flexibility of splicing can also be a liability, and several genetic diseases result from single-base changes that cause exons to be skipped during splicing. Conventional oligonucleotide strategies can block reactions but cannot restore splicing. We describe here a method by which the use of a defective exon was restored. Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) results from mutations of the Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) gene. Mutations of SMN1 cause SMA, whereas SMN2 acts as a modifying gene. The two genes undergo alternative splicing with SMN1, producing an abundance of full-length mRNA transcripts, whereas SMN2 predominantly produces exon 7-deleted transcripts. This discrepancy is because of a single nucleotide difference in SMN2 exon 7, which disrupts an exonic splicing enhancer containing an SF2͞ASF binding site. We have designed oligoribonucleotides that are complementary to exon 7 and contain exonic splicing enhancer motifs to provide trans-acting enhancers. These tailed oligoribonucleotides increased SMN2 exon 7 splicing in vitro and rescued the incorporation of SMN2 exon 7 in SMA patient fibroblasts. This treatment also resulted in the partial restoration of gems, intranuclear structures containing SMN protein that are severely reduced in patients with SMA. The use of tailed antisense oligonucleotides to recruit positively acting factors to stimulate a splicing reaction may have therapeutic applications for genetic disorders, such as SMA, in which splicing patterns are altered. P roximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by the degeneration of the motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, resulting in muscular atrophy and weakness. The overall incidence of SMA is 1 in 10,000 live births, with a carrier frequency of 1 in 50. Onset is primarily in childhood, and three different forms are recognized, type I SMA being the most severe form and type III SMA at the milder end of the scale. Children affected by SMA I never sit and usually die within the first year of life, whereas those with type III acquire the ability to walk and have a normal life expectancy. An intermediate category (SMA II) is also recognized, where affected individuals can sit unsupported but cannot walk (1). The gene implicated in SMA is the Survival of Motor Neuron (SMN) gene located on chromosome 5q13 (2). It consists of eight exons, the first seven of which encode a 294-aa protein (3). The human SMN gene exists as a mirror-image duplication with a telomeric (SMN1) and a centromeric (SMN2) copy. Mutations in SMN1 cause SMA (4), whereas the copy number of the residual SMN2 genes is believed to modify the severity of the phenotype, as suggested by the increased copy number in patients with a milder disease course (5). Deletions of both SMN1 and SMN2 have never been observed ...