BackgroundHypovitaminosis D has been recently recognized as a worldwide epidemic. Since vitamin D exerts significant metabolic activities, comprising free fatty acids (FFA) flux regulation from the periphery to the liver, its deficiency may promote fat deposition into the hepatocytes. Aim of our study was to test the hypothesis of a direct association between hypovitaminosis D and the presence of NAFLD in subjects with various degree of insulin-resistance and related metabolic disorders.MethodsWe studied 262 consecutive subjects referred to the Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases clinics for metabolic evaluation. NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) was diagnosed by upper abdomen ultrasonography, metabolic syndrome was identified according to the Third Report of National Cholesterol Education Program/Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP/ATPIII) modified criteria. Insulin-resistance was evaluated by means of HOMA-IR. Fatty-Liver-Index, a recently identified correlate of NAFLD, was also estimated. Serum 25(OH)vitamin D was measured by colorimetric method.ResultsPatients with NAFLD (n = 162,61.8%) had reduced serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels compared to subjects without NAFLD (14.8 ± 9.2 vs 20.5 ± 9.7 ng/ml, p < 0.001, OR 0.95, IC 95% 0.92-0.98). The relationship between NAFLD and reduced 25(OH)vitamin D levels was independent from age, sex, triglycerides, high density lipoproteins (HDL) and glycaemia (p < 0.005) and Fatty Liver Index inversely correlated with low 25(OH) vitamin D regardless sex, age and HOMA-IR (p < 0.007).ConclusionsLow 25(OH)vitamin D levels are associated with the presence of NAFLD independently from metabolic syndrome, diabetes and insulin-resistance profile.

Evidence suggests an association between low serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin D 3 [25(OH)D 3 ] levels and the presence and prognosis of liver disease. Vitamin D receptor (VDR) has been widely detected in the liver, but its expression in the course of liver disease has never been investigated. We evaluated the hepatic expression of VDR along with that of vitamin D 25-hydroxylases in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) or chronic hepatitis C (CHC) and its relationship with hepatic histological features and serum 25(OH)D 3 levels. We evaluated 61 patients (25 NASH and 36 CHC) who had undergone liver biopsy for clinical purposes and 20 subjects without liver disease. Serum 25(OH)D 3 was measured via colorimetric assay. Expression of VDR, CYP2R1, and CYP27A1 was evaluated via immunohistochemistry in hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, and liver inflammatory cells. Parenchymal and inflammatory cells from liver biopsies of patients with NASH and CHC expressed VDR, CYP2R1, and CYP27A1. In NASH patients, VDR expression on cholangiocytes was inversely correlated with steatosis severity (P < 0.02), lobular inflammation (P < 0.01), and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease score (P < 0.03). Moreover, expression of CYP2R1 in hepatocytes correlated strongly with VDR positivity on liver inflammatory cells. In CHC subjects, fibrosis stage was associated with low hepatic CYP27A1 expression, whereas portal inflammation was significantly higher in patients with VDR-negative inflammatory cells (P < 0.009) and low VDR expression in hepatocytes (P < 0.03). Conclusion: VDR is widely expressed in the liver and inflammatory cells of chronic liver disease patients and its expression is negatively associated with the severity of liver histology in both NASH and CHC patients. These data suggest that vitamin D/VDR system may play a role in the progression of metabolic and viral chronic liver damage. (HEPATOLOGY 2012;56:2180-2187 R ecent studies have suggested a direct association between low serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin From the

BackgroundNon-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common hepatic disorder worldwide, reaching prevalence up to 90 % in obese patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), and representing an independent risk factor for cardiovascular mortality. Furthermore, the coexistence of T2D and NAFLD leads to higher incidence of diabetes’ complications and additive detrimental liver outcomes. The existence of a close association between NAFLD and hypovitaminosis D, along with the anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitizing properties of vitamin D, have been largely described, but vitamin D effects on hepatic fat content have never been tested in a randomized controlled trial. We assessed the efficacy and safety of 24-week oral high-dose vitamin D supplementation in T2D patients with NAFLD.MethodsThis randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was carried out at the Diabetes Centre of Sapienza University, Rome, Italy, to assess oral treatment with cholecalciferol (2000 IU/day) or placebo in T2D patients with NAFLD. The primary endpoint was reduction of hepatic fat fraction (HFF) measured by magnetic resonance; as hepatic outcomes, we also investigated changes in serum transaminases, CK18-M30, N-terminal Procollagen III Propeptide (P3NP) levels, and Fatty Liver Index (FLI). Secondary endpoints were improvement in metabolic (fasting glycaemia, HbA1c, lipids, HOMA-IR, HOMA-β, ADIPO-IR, body fat distribution) and cardiovascular (ankle-brachial index, intima-media thickness, flow-mediated dilatation) parameters from baseline to end of treatment.ResultsSixty-five patients were randomized, 26 (cholecalciferol) and 29 (placebo) subjects completed the study. 25(OH) vitamin D significantly increased in the active treated group (48.15 ± 23.7 to 89.80 ± 23.6 nmol/L, P < 0.001); however, no group differences were found in HFF, transaminases, CK18-M30, P3NP levels or FLI after 24 weeks. Vitamin D neither changed the metabolic profile nor the cardiovascular parameters.ConclusionsOral high-dose vitamin D supplementation over 24 weeks did not improve hepatic steatosis or metabolic/cardiovascular parameters in T2D patients with NAFLD. Studies with a longer intervention period are warranted for exploring the effect of long time exposure to vitamin D.Trial registrationThis trial was approved on July 2011 by the Ethics Committee of Policlinico Umberto I, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy, and registered at www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu number 2011-003010-17.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12916-016-0638-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the first cause of chronic liver disease worldwide; it ranges from simple steatosis to steatohepatitis (NASH) and, potentially, cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma. NAFLD is also an independent risk factor for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality. As it is largely associated with insulin resistance and related disorders, NAFLD has been recently re-named as Metabolic dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD). At present, there are no approved pharmacological treatments for this condition. Vitamin D is a molecule with extensive anti-fibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and insulin-sensitizing properties, which have been proven also in hepatic cells and is involved in immune-metabolic pathways within the gut–adipose tissue–liver axis. Epidemiological data support a relationship hypovitaminosis D and the presence of NAFLD and steatohepatitis (NASH); however, results from vitamin D supplementation trials on liver outcomes are controversial. This narrative review provides an overview of the latest evidence on pathophysiological pathways connecting vitamin D to NAFLD, with emphasis on the effects of vitamin D treatment in MAFLD by a nonsystematic literature review of PubMed published clinical trials. This article conforms to the Scale for Assessment of Narrative Review Articles (SANRA) guidelines. Evidence so far available supports the hypothesis of potential benefits of vitamin D supplementation in selected populations of NAFLD patients, as those with shorter disease duration and mild to moderate liver damage.