Martha's Vineyard, Mass., has been the site of two outbreaks of tularemia (1978 and 2000). Although most patients from both outbreaks presented with pneumonic disease and although aerosol transmission has been suggested, the bite of a dog tick and exposure to rabbits remain the only proven modes of transmission. The factors that precipitated the tularemia outbreaks or the proximal determinants of human risk remain undescribed. We sought to test the hypothesis that the ongoing outbreak is due to a recent introduction event as opposed to amplification of a cryptic enzootic cycle. From 2001-2003, we collected 4,246 dog ticks and tested them in pools for evidence of tularemia by PCR. We then measured the genetic diversity of Francisella tularensis by using multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis. The prevalence of F. tularensis in dog ticks averaged 0.7%. From 29 positive pools, we identified 10 unique genotypes, which was an unexpectedly large degree of diversity (Simpson's index ‫؍‬ 0.86). This degree of genetic diversity is inconsistent with a recent introduction event. We conclude that there has been long-standing enzootic transmission of tularemia on the island.

To evaluate symptoms, extent, and possible causes of colony decline and losses in Israel, we carried out (1) a survey of honeybee colony losses and potential causes via mail and phone; (2) systematic sampling of healthy and problematic beehives after requeening in the winter; (3) detection of Varroa and pathogens including, viruses and Nosema ceranae, by microbiological means and sensitive RT-PCR. From 58 beekeepers (46 000 colonies) interviewed, 40% complained of extensive colony loses during 2008. Examination and sampling for pests and pathogens of 113 hives in the winter of 2009 showed 35% of hives with Nosema and 21% with V. destructor. The most frequent viruses detected were Black Queen Cell Virus, Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus, and Deformed Wing Virus. A significant negative correlation was found between worker population in the hive and the presence of viral and Nosema infections. Apis mellifera / Bee viruses / Varroa / Nosema