Extremism and radicalization towards violence are urgent topics in many countries. Numerous research projects are carried out, of which many focus on risk factors only. In contrast, this article contains a systematic review of the rare international research on protective factors. After screening more than 2,000 documents, we found 17 reports containing 21 analyses that specifically addressed potential protective effects and provided quantitative data. Most studies addressed religious/ethnic extremism; far-right, far-left, and mixed forms were less frequent. Thirty different protective factors showed significant effects. Many were found in single analyses, but there were various replicated factors such as self-control, adherence to law, acceptance of police legitimacy, illness, positive parenting behavior, non-violent significant others, good school achievement, non-violent peers, contact to foreigners, and a basic attachment to society. Most findings are similar to what we know from more general research on youth violence, but there are also some protective factors that seem to be more specific, particularly with regard to religious/ethnic extremism. In conclusion, it is suggested to relate the topic of extremism and violent radicalization more strongly with other fields of developmental and life course criminology. For further progress on this path, more research on protective factors and integrated theoretical concepts are needed. This will also contribute to effective prevention.

Experience sampling methodologies are likely to play an important role in advancing our understanding of momentary influences on aggression, including short-term antecedent psychological states and situations. In this study, we evaluate whether a newly developed experiencing sampling measure of aggression, the Aggression Experience Sampler ( Aggression-ES), provides a valid and reliable measure of aggression in experience sampling contexts. Participants were a convenience sample of 23 young adults recruited from the local University community. Data were collected using an experience sampling smartphone application over 8 days. They were analyzed using multilevel structural equation modeling. Our results support the within- and between-person reliability and the criterion validity of the Aggression-ES. The Aggression-ES represents a good choice of measure for use in experience sampling studies of aggression. Further work in other samples will help to provide further validity evidence for the measure.

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Objectives Sports programs are widely implemented as measures of crime prevention. In contrast to their popularity, there is little systematic knowledge about their effectiveness. This systematic review and meta-analysis have been carried out to fill this gap. In a systematic review, we gathered data on evaluated prevention programs specifically designed to prevent crime and delinquency. We then conducted a meta-analytic integration with studies using at least roughly equivalent control groups for the program evaluation. Method To retrieve relevant literature, we conducted a comprehensive international literature search until June 2021 drawing on scientific databases. We also applied snow-balling searches and contacted practitioners in the field. Studies were eligible if they evaluated sports programs designed to prevent delinquency on primary, secondary, and/or tertiary level. We focused on crime-related outcomes and potentially underlying psycho-social factors. We made no restrictions regarding characteristics of the participants or other aspects such as duration of the program. Results 24 studies were eligible for our systematic review, from which only thirteen were included into our meta-analytic integration. We found a moderate effect of participation in sports programs on crime-related outcomes (d = 0.36, p < .001). Participants showed a significant decrease in outcomes such as aggressiveness or anti-social behavior. We also analyzed psychological outcomes such as self-esteem or mental well-being, which also significantly improved when participating in sports programs (d = 0.87, p < ..05). Conclusions Sports programs seem to be an effective measure of crime prevention. However, future research needs more sound evaluation designs and moderator analyses to better understand the functioning and improve the implementation of sports programs.

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