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Scavenger receptor CD36 mediates Staphylococcus aureus phagocytosis and initiates TLR2/6-signaling. We analyzed the role of CD36 in the uptake and TLR-independent signaling of various bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, S. aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. Expression of human CD36 in HeLa cells increased the uptake of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria compared with the control mock-transfected cells. Bacterial adhesion was associated with pathogen phagocytosis. Upon CD36-transfection, HEK293 cells, which demonstrate no TLR2/4 expression, acquired LPS responsiveness as assessed by IL-8 production. The cells demonstrated a marked 5- to 15-fold increase in cytokine release upon exposure to Gram-negative bacteria, while the increase was much smaller (1.5- to 3-fold) with Gram-positive bacteria and lipotechoic acid. CD36 down-regulation utilizing CD36 small interfering RNA reduced cytokine release by 40%–50% in human fibroblasts induced by both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as LPS. Of all MAP kinase signaling cascade inhibitors tested, only the inhibitor of JNK, a stress activated protein kinase, potently blocked E. coli/LPS-stimulated cytokine production. NF-κB inhibitors were ineffective, indicating direct TLR-independent signaling. JNK activation was confirmed by Western blot analyses of phosphorylated JKN1/2 products. Synthetic amphipathic peptides with an α-helical motif were shown to be efficient inhibitors of E. coli- and LPS-induced IL-8 secretion as well as JNK1/2 activation/phosphorylation in CD36-overexpressing cells. These results indicate that CD36 functions as a phagocytic receptor for a variety of bacteria and mediates signaling induced by Gram-negative bacteria and LPS via a JNK-mediated signaling pathway in a TLR2/4-independent manner.

Scavenger receptor, class B, type I (SR-BI) mediates selective uptake of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesteryl ester. SR-BI recognizes HDL, low density lipoprotein (LDL), exchangeable apolipoproteins, and protein-free lipid vesicles containing negatively charged phospholipids. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are highly glycosylated anionic phospholipids contributing to septic shock. Despite significant structural similarities between anionic phospholipids and LPS, the role of SR-BI in LPS uptake is unknown. Cla-1, the human SR-BI orthologue, was determined to be a LPSbinding protein and endocytic receptor mediating the binding and internalization of lipoprotein-free, monomerized LPS. LPS strongly competed with HDL, lipidfree apoA-I and apoA-II for HDL binding to the mouse RAW cells. Stably transfected HeLa cells expressing Cla-1-bound LPS with a K d of about 16 g/ml, and had a 3-4-fold increase in binding capacity and LPS uptake. Bodipy-labeled LPS uptake was found to initially accumulate in the plasma membrane and subsequently in a perinuclear region identified predominantly as the Golgi complex. Bodipy-LPS and Alexa-apoA-I had staining that colocalized on the cell surface and intracellularly indicating similar transport mechanisms. When associated with HDL, LPS uptake was increased in Cla-1 overexpressing HeLa cells by 5-10-fold. Cla-1-associated 3 H-LPS uptake exceeded 125 I-apolipoprotein uptake by 5-fold indicating a selective LPS uptake. Upon interacting with Cla-1 overexpressing HeLa cells, the complex (Bodipy-LPS/Alexa 488 apolipoprotein-labeled HDL) bound and was internalized as a holoparticle. Intracellularly, LPS and apolipoproteins were sorted to different intracellular compartments. With LPS-associated HDL, intracellular LPS colocalized predominantly with transferrin, indicating delivery to an endocytic recycling compartment. Our study reveals a close similarity between Cla-1-mediated selective LPS uptake and the recently described selective lipid sorting by rodent SR-BI. In summary, Cla-1 was found to bind and internalize monomerized and HDL-associated LPS, indicating that Cla-1 may play important role in septic shock by affecting LPS cellular uptake and clearance.Sepsis results from bacteria and their products entering the bloodstream and causing an overwhelming inflammatory response. Bacterial infections, as well as antibiotic therapy, cause the release of bacterial cell wall components including endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 1 lipoteichoic acid and peptidogycan (1); see Refs. 2 for review). Sepsis because of a Gramnegative bacterium is classically associated with endotoxemia, an acute phase reaction, and high mortality because of disseminated intravascular coagulation, multiple organ failure, and shock (3). LPS induces a broad spectrum of biological effects associated with the activation of immune and inflammatory cells, such as macrophages, monocytes, and endothelial cells. Systemic LPS-related activation of macrophages leads to overproduction of inflammatory mediators, such as leukocyte ...

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has recently been shown to facilitate macrophage foam cell formation and has been suggested to be a proatherogenic factor. The mechanism of LPS induced cholesterol accumulation, however, is unclear. In this report, using the macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cell line, we provide experimental evidence that LPS's proatherogenic effects may at least in part reflect altered cholesterol metabolism. Data presented demonstrate that in a dose-dependent manner, LPS is able to down regulate the mRNA expression of the two primary high-density lipoprotein (HDL) receptors, scavenger receptor B1 (SR-B1) and ATP binding cassette A1 (ABCA1), with a 50% inhibitory concentration of less than 0.2 ng/ml, as well as to decrease SR-B1 protein expression by 80%. We also found that LPS treatment resulted in a significant decrease (to 20% of the control level) of the specific 125 I-HDL binding as well as in 50% inhibition of the HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux compared to untreated cells. In addition, we compared the potencies of various modified LPS preparations and demonstrated that the phosphorylated lipid A portion of LPS, which is highly conserved among gram-negative microorganisms, including Chlamydia, is primarily responsible for the effects of LPS on SR-B1 and ABCA1 expression. Inhibitors of NF-B activation were observed to efficiently block the suppressive effect of LPS on SR-B1 and ABCA1, suggesting a mechanism involving NF-B. These data indicate that the LPS effects on cholesterol metabolism may contribute to the proatherogenic properties of LPS.

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