Branch retinal vein occlusion has an incidence of 0.5% to 1.2%. Several risk factors, such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, thrombophilia and hypercoagulation, systemic and inflammatory diseases, medications, and ocular conditions, have found to be associated with BRVO. The symptoms depended on the site and severity of the occlusion. The average reduction in visual acuity for ischemic BRVO is 20/50 and for nonischemic BRVO is 20/60. Acute BRVO can be detected by fundoscopy, where flame hemorrhages, dot and blot hemorrhages, cotton wool spots, hard exudates, retinal edema, and dilated tortuous veins can be observed. Chronic BRVO would be more subtle and characterized by the appearance of venous collateral formation and vascular sheathing, in addition to complications previously mentioned. Areas of ischemia can be evaluated using fluorescein angiography. The extent of macular edema and the presence of retinal detachment can be detected by fundoscopic examination or fluorescein angiography, although optical coherence tomography is considered to be the best method. As far as complications, the most common is macular edema, followed by retinal neovascularization, vitreous hemorrhage, or retinal detachment.

Our study showed that in patients with AD, even without visual failure there was a decrease in macular and RNFL thickness, as well as a decrease of the electrical activity of the macula.

It is important to take into account the various risk factors for CSR, so as to define vulnerable groups and to shed light into the pathogenesis of the disease.

Purpose: To stratify the literature on angioid streaks, from pathophysiology to treatment. Methods: Review of the current literature. Results: Angioid streaks are crack-like dehiscences of Bruch membrane, which may coexist with systemic diseases, such as pseudoxanthoma elasticum, Paget disease, Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, hemoglobinopathies, or other diseases of the collagen. Various diagnostic methods, including infrared and red-free retinography, autofluorescence, optical coherence tomography, fluorescein angiography, and indocyanine green angiography, are useful to diagnose, evaluate, and monitor angioid streaks. Choroidal neovascularization consists of a major complication of angioid streaks leading to visual impairment. Therefore, observation could not be a treatment option. Photodynamic treatment or anti–vascular endothelial growth factor agents have been used for the treatment of angioid streaks, offering promising but short-term results. Currently, the available treatment may limit the disease, but not permanently inactivate it. Conclusion: This review discusses the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of angioid streaks, presenting the existing literature on this topic.

BackgroundPast research in population health trends has shown that injuries form a substantial burden of population health loss. Regular updates to injury burden assessments are critical. We report Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2017 Study estimates on morbidity and mortality for all injuries.MethodsWe reviewed results for injuries from the GBD 2017 study. GBD 2017 measured injury-specific mortality and years of life lost (YLLs) using the Cause of Death Ensemble model. To measure non-fatal injuries, GBD 2017 modelled injury-specific incidence and converted this to prevalence and years lived with disability (YLDs). YLLs and YLDs were summed to calculate disability-adjusted life years (DALYs).FindingsIn 1990, there were 4 260 493 (4 085 700 to 4 396 138) injury deaths, which increased to 4 484 722 (4 332 010 to 4 585 554) deaths in 2017, while age-standardised mortality decreased from 1079 (1073 to 1086) to 738 (730 to 745) per 100 000. In 1990, there were 354 064 302 (95% uncertainty interval: 338 174 876 to 371 610 802) new cases of injury globally, which increased to 520 710 288 (493 430 247 to 547 988 635) new cases in 2017. During this time, age-standardised incidence decreased non-significantly from 6824 (6534 to 7147) to 6763 (6412 to 7118) per 100 000. Between 1990 and 2017, age-standardised DALYs decreased from 4947 (4655 to 5233) per 100 000 to 3267 (3058 to 3505).InterpretationInjuries are an important cause of health loss globally, though mortality has declined between 1990 and 2017. Future research in injury burden should focus on prevention in high-burden populations, improving data collection and ensuring access to medical care.