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The patterns of identification with their parents of a sample of children of Holocaust survivors showed clear differences from those of a control group. As the clinical literature would indicate, these differences suggest a specific character organization rather than psychopathology. An explanation for the lack of agreement on this issue in the empirical literature is proposed and explored.

Objective: Previous evidence suggests heightened sensitivity to life-threatening challenges among offspring of Holocaust survivors (OHS). Therefore, this study examined the psychological reactions of aging OHS during the COVID-19 pandemic. Method: A convenience sample (N = 297, mean age = 66.85) of North American Jews rated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms for their parents and for themselves. They further rated their psychological distress, COVID-19-related worries, loneliness, and social support. Respondents were divided into four groups: OHS with two parents with probable PTSD, with one such parent, with no such parent, and comparisons whose parents did not undergo the Holocaust. Results: OHS with two parents with PTSD reported the highest levels of PTSD symptoms. Controlling for respondents' own PTSD, OHS with two parents with PTSD reported higher psychological distress relative to comparisons. Moreover, OHS with parental PTSD reported higher loneliness relative to OHS without parental PTSD or comparisons. The groups did not differ in COVID-19-related worries or social support. Conclusions: The distress experienced by OHS with parental PTSD seems more general, and is possibly related to the multiple coalescing crises that occurred since the pandemic began, rather than to the health risk associated directly with COVID-19. Moreover, while OHS acknowledge having good social support, some of them nevertheless feel lonely. This possibly reflects unique interpersonal difficulties characteristic in Holocaust survivor families. These findings suggest that OHS with parental PTSD (especially when both parents had symptoms) represent a group of older adults who are relatively susceptible to negative psychological effects of the current pandemic. Clinical Impact StatementPreliminary COVID-19-related studies indicate that older adults might be vulnerable to negative mental health effects associated with social distancing and isolation. Identifying older adults who might be particularly vulnerable will allow more timely effective intervention and prevention of adverse effects. We identified vulnerabilities to PTSD, psychological distress, and loneliness among aging offspring of Holocaust survivors with parental PTSD, which render these older adults more susceptible to negative effects related to COVID-19 and to the coalescing crises that followed. Parental PTSD might constitute a risk factor for such vulnerabilities also in other groups of older adults.

Evidence suggesting accentuated sibling differentiation and de-identification is observed among adult children of Holocaust survivors, manifested in the respective family roles of each sibling, their relationships vis a vis the parents, and also in the siblings’ general adaptation styles. These dissimilarities are often accompanied by a negative quality of the sibling relationships. It is proposed that (dissociated) affects and enactments of unsynthesized parental trauma infuse implicit and explicit interactions in family life with survival themes and with intense concerns for the parents’ emotional well-being and polarize normative processes of sibling differentiation. Mutual resentments often cause dissolution of ties between siblings and their families in adulthood. Such processes represent intergenerational transmission of effects related to parental trauma that extend beyond the parent-child dyad, influencing the matrix of relationships in the family as-a-system, and damaging the siblings bond. The resulting loss of extended family connections for the third generation perpetuates raptured generational continuity, one of the devastating consequences of genocidal trauma.