During postnatal development, microglia, CNS resident innate immune cells, are essential for synaptic pruning, neuronal apoptosis and remodeling. During this period microglia undergo morphological and phenotypic transformations; however, little is known about how microglial number and density is regulated during postnatal CNS development. We found that after an initial increase during the first 14 postnatal days, microglial numbers in mouse brain began declining in the third postnatal week and were reduced by 50% by 6 weeks of age; these “adult” levels were maintained until at least 9 months of age. Microglial CD11b levels increased, whereas CD45 and ER-MP58 declined between P10 and adulthood, consistent with a maturing microglial phenotype. Our data indicate that both increased microglial apoptosis and a decreased proliferative capacity contribute to the developmental reduction in microglial numbers. We found no correlation between developmental reductions in microglial numbers and brain mRNA levels of Cd200, Cx3Cl1, M-Csf or Il-34. We tested the ability of M-Csf-overexpression, a key growth factor promoting microglial proliferation and survival, to prevent microglial loss in the third postnatal week. Mice overexpressing M-Csf in astrocytes had higher numbers of microglia at all ages tested. However, the developmental decline in microglial numbers still occurred, suggesting that chronically elevated M-CSF is unable to overcome the developmental decrease in microglial numbers. Whereas the identity of the factor(s) regulating microglial number and density during development remains to be determined, it is likely that microglia respond to a “maturation” signal since the reduction in microglial numbers coincides with CNS maturation.

Macrophage colony stimulating factor (CSF1) is a cytokine that is upregulated in several diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). To examine the effects of CSF1 over-expression on microglia, transgenic mice that over-express CSF1 in the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) compartment were generated. CSF1 over-expressing mice have increased microglial proliferation and increased microglial numbers compared to controls. Treatment with PLX3397, a small molecule inhibitor of the CSF1 receptor CSF1R and related kinases, decreases microglial numbers by promoting microglial apoptosis in both CSF1 over-expressing and control mice. Microglia in CSF1 over-expressing mice exhibit gene expression profiles indicating that they are not basally M1 or M2 polarized, but they do have defects in inducing expression of certain genes in response to the inflammatory stimulus lipopolysaccharide (LPS). These results indicate that the CSF1 over-expression observed in CNS pathologies likely has pleiotropic influences on microglia. Furthermore, small molecule inhibition of CSF1R has the potential to reverse CSF1-driven microglial accumulation that is frequently observed in CNS pathologies, but can also promote apoptosis of normal microglia.

Current therapies for high-grade gliomas extend survival only modestly. The glioma microenvironment, including glioma-associated microglia/macrophages (GAMs), is a potential therapeutic target. The microglia/macrophage cytokine CSF1 and its receptor CSF1R are overexpressed in human high-grade gliomas. To determine if the other known CSF1R ligand IL-34 is expressed in gliomas, we examined expression array data of human high-grade gliomas and performed RT-PCR on glioblastoma sphere-forming cell lines (GSCs). Expression microarray analyses indicated that CSF1, but not IL-34, is frequently overexpressed in human tumors. We found that while GSCs did express CSF1, most GSC lines did not express detectable levels of IL-34 mRNA. We therefore studied the impact of modulating CSF1 levels on gliomagenesis in the context of the GFAP-V12Ha-ras-IRESLacZ (Ras*) model. Csf1 deficiency deterred glioma formation in the Ras* model while CSF1 transgenic overexpression decreased the survival of Ras* mice and promoted the formation of high-grade gliomas. Conversely, CSF1 overexpression increased GAM density, but did not impact GAM polarization state. Regardless of CSF1 expression status, most GAMs were negative for the M2 polarization markers ARG1 and CD206; when present, ARG1+ and CD206+ cells were found in regions of peripheral immune cell invasion. Therefore, our findings indicate that CSF1 signaling is oncogenic during gliomagenesis through a mechanism distinct from modulating GAM polarization status.