The role of the distal histidine in regulating ligand binding to adult human hemoglobin (HbA) was re-examined systematically by preparing His(E7) to Gly, Ala, Leu, Gln, Phe, and Trp mutants of both Hb subunits. Rate constants for O 2 , CO, and NO binding were measured using rapid mixing and laser photolysis experiments designed to minimize autoxidation of the unstable apolar E7 mutants. Replacing His(E7) with Gly, Ala, Leu, or Phe causes 20 -500-fold increases in the rates of O 2 dissociation from either Hb subunit, demonstrating unambiguously that the native His(E7) imidazole side chain forms a strong hydrogen bond with bound O 2 in both the ␣ and ␤ chains (⌬G His(E7)H-bond ≈ ؊8 kJ/mol). As the size of the E7 amino acid is increased from Gly to Phe, decreases in k O2 , In 1970, Perutz (1) proposed that the distal histidines located at the E7 helical positions, 3 ␣His-58 and ␤His-63, play crucial structural roles for regulating both the affinities and rates of O 2 binding to adult human hemoglobin (HbA). 4 These ideas were based on the suggestion by Pauling (2) that His(E7) could stabilize bound O 2 by donating a hydrogen bond to the partial negative charge on the superoxide-Fe(III)-like FeO 2 complex and on the idea by Perutz and Mathews (3) that the distal histidine could also be acting as gate for ligand entry and exit. Studies of model heme compounds and naturally occurring globins with His(E7) replacements suggested strongly that the distal histidine also plays a key role in discrimination between O 2 and CO binding (4 -9).The first mutagenesis studies on sperm whale Mb and human HbA reported that His(E7) to Gly mutations in ␣ subunits and Mb cause marked increases in the rates of O 2 dissociation and significant decreases in affinity, both of which indicate strong stabilization of the FeO 2 complex by proton donation from the wild-type His(E7) side chain (7, 10, 11). In addition, the association rate constants for O 2 and CO binding increased 5-10-fold. The latter results were interpreted in terms of the distal histidine gate mechanism, with the His(E7) to Gly mutation resulting in an open E7 channel. In contrast, neither the dissociation nor association rate constants for O 2 binding to the R state ␤Gly(E7) mutant of HbA appeared to increase significantly, implying no electrostatic stabilization of bound ligands by the native His(E7) in ␤ subunits and an already open gate or alternative pathway. These surprising kinetic results were explained by the first high resolution structure of human oxyhemoglobin published by Shaanan (12), in which the N⑀H atoms of distal histidine in ␤ subunits seemed to be further away from the bound O 2 atoms and pointing toward the heme plane.Between 1989 and 1999, our group and others constructed large libraries of mammalian Mb mutants as a model system for understanding the structural mechanisms of ligand binding to vertebrate globins involved in O 2 transport and storage. A detailed molecular mechanism for O 2 binding has emerged. Ligand entry into myoglobin occurs through t...

Significance: The worldwide blood shortage has generated a significant demand for alternatives to whole blood and packed red blood cells for use in transfusion therapy. One such alternative involves the use of acellular recombinant hemoglobin (Hb) as an oxygen carrier. Recent Advances: Large amounts of recombinant human Hb can be expressed and purified from transgenic Escherichia coli. The physiological suitability of this material can be enhanced using protein-engineering strategies to address specific efficacy and toxicity issues. Mutagenesis of Hb can (i) adjust dioxygen affinity over a 100-fold range, (ii) reduce nitric oxide (NO) scavenging over 30-fold without compromising dioxygen binding, (iii) slow the rate of autooxidation, (iv) slow the rate of hemin loss, (v) impede subunit dissociation, and (vi) diminish irreversible subunit denaturation. Recombinant Hb production is potentially unlimited and readily subjected to current good manufacturing practices, but may be restricted by cost. Acellular Hb-based O 2 carriers have superior shelf-life compared to red blood cells, are universally compatible, and provide an alternative for patients for whom no other alternative blood products are available or acceptable. Critical Issues: Remaining objectives include increasing Hb stability, mitigating iron-catalyzed and iron-centered oxidative reactivity, lowering the rate of hemin loss, and lowering the costs of expression and purification. Although many mutations and chemical modifications have been proposed to address these issues, the precise ensemble of mutations has not yet been identified. Future Directions: Future studies are aimed at selecting various combinations of mutations that can reduce NO scavenging, autooxidation, oxidative degradation, and denaturation without compromising O 2 delivery, and then investigating their suitability and safety in vivo. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 18, 2314-2328.

His(E7) to Trp replacements inHemoglobins represent a very diverse protein family with members occurring in all six kingdoms of life (1). The functions of these proteins differ significantly, ranging from oxygen storage and transport, NO dioxygenation, and nitrite reduction to sensing intracellular levels of diatomic gases for transcriptional regulation and chemotaxis (2). The central chemical events for these functions are movement of ligands into the distal portion of the heme pocket, internal bond formation with the heme iron, and electrostatic stabilization or steric hindrance of the bound ligand by surrounding active site amino acids. Although the quantum mechanical details of bond formation remain to be resolved, there is general agreement on the biophysical mechanisms governing steric hindrance and hydrogen bonding between amino acid side chains and the bound ligand (3-10). In contrast, the pathways for ligands movement from solvent through the protein and into the active site are still under debate.As recently reviewed by Elber (11), molecular dynamics simulations and other computational approaches have almost uniformly suggested that there are multiple routes for ligand entry into and escape from the active sites of hemoglobins and myoglobins (12-27). Many of these pathways are coincident with apolar cavities, which have been identified as xenon docking sites (16, 17, 28 -30). However, as also pointed out by Elber (11), there is little or no direct experimental evidence in support of multiple pathways (31, 32). In the cases of mammalian myoglobins, human hemoglobin, and HbI from Scapharca inaequivalvis, almost all of the experimental evidence suggests that Ն75% of ligands enter and exit the distal pocket through a transient channel between the heme propionates, which is produced by outward rotation of the distal histidine (His(E7)). 2Although ligands do migrate into internal cavities immediately after photodissociation, they appear to return to the distal pocket and escape through the E7 gate (33-41).The structures of the active sites and the E7 channels in Mb and the subunits of human HbA are very similar, and thus analogous mechanisms for ligand binding are inferred. Until very recently, there were little experimental and computational data regarding the pathways of ligand migration into HbA. Mouawad et al. (15) observed the formation of transient cavities in the ␣ and ␤ subunits of human HbA during simulations of the T to R conformational change and postulated these cavities could allow ligands to diffuse through the globin matrix. Sottini et al. (16,17) used molecular modeling approaches to find potential xenon binding cavities in human HbA and suggested that ligands could use these apolar voids as pathways to enter or escape the active site. Savino et al. (30) reported crystal structures of Tyr(B10)/Gln(E7) deoxyHbA with xenon atoms partially occupying the sites identified in molecular modeling experiments. Thus, if only the theoretical and structural litera-* This work was supported, in whole or...

The free volume in the active site of human HbA plays a crucial role in governing the bimolecular rates of O2, CO, and NO binding, the fraction of geminate ligand recombination, and the rate of NO dioxygenation by the oxygenated complex. We have decreased the size of the distal pocket by mutating Leu(B10), Val(E11) and Leu(G8) to Phe and Trp and of other more internal cavities by filling them with Xe at high gas pressures. Increasing the size of the B10 side chain reduces bimolecular rates of ligand binding nearly 5,000-fold and inhibits CO geminate recombination due to both reduction of the capture volume in the distal pocket and direct steric hindrance of Fe-ligand bond formation. Phe and Trp(E11) mutations also cause a decrease in distal pocket volume but, at the same time, increase access to the Fe atom due to the loss of the γ2 CH3 group of the native Val(E11) side chain. The net result of these E11 substitutions is a dramatic increase in geminate recombination because dissociated CO is sequestered close to the Fe atom and can rapidly rebind without steric resistance. However, the bimolecular rate constants for ligand binding to the Phe and Trp(E11) mutants are decreased 5–30-fold, due to a smaller capture volume. Geminate and bimolecular kinetic parameters for Phe and Trp(G8) mutants are similar to those for the native HbA subunits because the aromatic rings at this position cause little change in distal pocket volume and because ligands do not move past this position into the globin interior of wild-type HbA subunits. The latter conclusion is verified by the observation that Xe binding to the α and β Hb subunits has little effect on either geminate or bimolecular ligand rebinding. All of these experimental results argue strongly against alternative ligand migration pathways that involve movements through the protein interior in HbA. Instead, ligands appear to enter through the His(E7) gate and are captured directly in the distal cavity.

The multidrug efflux pump MepA is a major contributor to multidrug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. MepR, a member of the multiple antibiotic resistance regulator (MarR) family, represses mepA and its own gene. Here, we report the structure of a MepR–mepR operator complex. Structural comparison of DNA-bound MepR with ‘induced’ apoMepR reveals the large conformational changes needed to allow the DNA-binding winged helix-turn-helix motifs to interact with the consecutive major and minor grooves of the GTTAG signature sequence. Intriguingly, MepR makes no hydrogen bonds to major groove nucleobases. Rather, recognition-helix residues Thr60, Gly61, Pro62 and Thr63 make sequence-specifying van der Waals contacts with the TTAG bases. Removing these contacts dramatically affects MepR–DNA binding activity. The wings insert into the flanking minor grooves, whereby residue Arg87, buttressed by Asp85, interacts with the O2 of T4 and O4′ ribosyl oxygens of A23 and T4. Mutating Asp85 and Arg87, both conserved throughout the MarR family, markedly affects MepR repressor activity. The His14′:Arg59 and Arg10′:His35:Phe108 interaction networks stabilize the DNA-binding conformation of MepR thereby contributing significantly to its high affinity binding. A structure-guided model of the MepR–mepA operator complex suggests that MepR dimers do not interact directly and cooperative binding is likely achieved by DNA-mediated allosteric effects.