The aim of this review article on recent developments of mechanochemistry (nowadays established as a part of chemistry) is to provide a comprehensive overview of advances achieved in the field of atomistic processes, phase transformations, simple and multicomponent nanosystems and peculiarities of mechanochemical reactions. Industrial aspects with successful penetration into fields like materials engineering, heterogeneous catalysis and extractive metallurgy are also reviewed. The hallmarks of mechanochemistry include influencing reactivity of solids by the presence of solid-state defects, interphases and relaxation phenomena, enabling processes to take place under non-equilibrium conditions, creating a well-crystallized core of nanoparticles with disordered near-surface shell regions and performing simple dry time-convenient one-step syntheses. Underlying these hallmarks are technological consequences like preparing new nanomaterials with the desired properties or producing these materials in a reproducible way with high yield and under simple and easy operating conditions. The last but not least hallmark is enabling work under environmentally friendly and essentially waste-free conditions (822 references).

Actinomycosis is a rare subacute or chronic, endogenous infection mainly by Actinomyces species, showing low virulence through fimbriae and biofilms. Cervicofacial, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic and sometimes cerebral, laryngeal, urinary and other regions can be affected. Actinomycosis mimics other diseases, often malignancy. Disease risk in immunocompromised subjects needs clarification. Diagnosis is often delayed and 'sulfur granules' are helpful but nonspecific. Culture requires immediate specimen transport and prolonged anaerobic incubation. Imaging, histology, cytology, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and molecular methods improve the diagnosis. Actinomycetes are β-lactam susceptible, occasionally resistant. Treatment includes surgery and/or long-term parenteral then oral antibiotics, but some 1-4-week regimens or oral therapy alone were curative. For prophylaxis, oral hygiene and regular intrauterine device replacement are important.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an increasingly prevalent opportunistic pathogen that causes a variety of nosocomial infections, life-threatening diseases in immunocompromised persons and chronic pulmonary infections in cystic fibrosis patients. The organism's virulence depends on an arsenal of cell-associated and extracellular factors determining the pathogenesis of infections as multifactorial. Most P. aeruginosa infections are both invasive and toxinogenic. Many of the extracellular virulence factors (proteases, exotoxin A, pyocyanin, siderophores, hemolysins) required for tissue invasion and dissemination of P. aeruginosa are controlled by quorum sensing (QS) that enable the bacteria to produce these factors in a coordinated, cell-density-dependent manner and overwhelm the host defense mechanisms during acute infection. Sometimes, QS also contributes to biofilm formation and thus participates in pathogenesis of chronic infection. This system is recognized to be a global regulatory network controlling the expression of a large number of virulence genes either directly or indirectly. Two-component sensor kinases such as RetS, LadS and GacS are also controlling the production of virulence factors as well as the switch from acute to chronic infection. The present review describes the known virulence determinants of P. aeruginosa, the stages of infection as well as the importance of QS in the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa infection.

Cobalt ferrite, CoFe 2 O 4 , nanoparticles have been obtained from pre-prepared layered double hydroxide carbonate, LDH-CO 3 , by mechanical milling. X-ray powder diffraction shows the only product of the milling for 5 h of the LDH-CO 3 is cobalt ferrite nanoparticles. Longerterm milling induces particle growth characterized by sharpening of the Bragg peaks and an increase of the blocking temperature, while prolonged milling results in the formation of some cobalt metal. Mo ¨ssbauer spectra and temperature dependence of the magnetization of the 5-h milled sample suggest that it consists of nanoparticles of size less than 10 nm with blocking temperature of 200 K, in good agreement with microscopy showing an average size of 6 nm. The magnetic properties exhibit a strong dependence on the particle size as a result of an unusual cation distribution and of surface effect. The saturation magnetization at 5 K and the squareness of the hysteresis loops increase with the average particle size. The difference between zero-field-cooled and field-cooled hysteresis loops is correlated with the presence of randomness of the moments at the surface.

Antibiotic resistance in Helicobacter pylori is the major cause of eradication failure. Primary H. pylori susceptibility patterns, however, are becoming less predictable. Currently, high (> or =20%) clarithromycin resistance rates have been observed in the USA and in developed countries in Europe and Asia, while the highest (> or =80%) metronidazole-resistance rates have been reported in Africa, Asia and South America. Primary quinolone-resistance rates of 10% or more have already been reported in developed countries in Europe and Asia. Primary amoxicillin resistance has been low (0 to <2%) in Europe but higher (6-59%) in Africa, Asia and South America. Similarly, tetracycline resistance has been absent or low (<5%) in most countries and higher (9-27%) in Asia and South America. The increasing clarithromycin and quinolone resistance, and multidrug resistance detected in 0 to less than 5% in Europe and more often (14.2%) in Brazil are worrying. Growing resistance often parallels national antibiotic consumption and may vary within patient groups according to the geographic region, patient's age and sex, type of disease, birthplace, other infections and other factors. The geographic map and evolution of primary H. pylori resistance are clinically important, should be considered when choosing eradication regimens, and should be monitored constantly at national and global levels in an attempt to reach the recently recommended goal of eradication of more than 95%.