Tumors are stiff and data suggest that the extracellular matrix stiffening that correlates with experimental mammary malignancy drives tumor invasion and metastasis. Nevertheless, the relationship between tissue and extracellular matrix stiffness and human breast cancer progression and aggression remains unclear. We undertook a biophysical and biochemical assessment of stromal-epithelial interactions in noninvasive, invasive and normal adjacent human breast tissue and in breast cancers of increasingly aggressive subtype. Our analysis revealed that human breast cancer transformation is accompanied by an incremental increase in collagen deposition and a progressive linearization and thickening of interstitial collagen. The linearization of collagen was visualized as an overall increase in tissue birefringence and was most striking at the invasive front of the tumor where the stiffness of the stroma and cellular mechanosignaling were the highest. Amongst breast cancer subtypes we found that the stroma at the invasive region of the more aggressive Basal-like and Her2 tumor subtypes was the most heterogeneous and the stiffest when compared to the less aggressive Luminal A and B subtypes. Intriguingly, we quantified the greatest number of infiltrating macrophages and the highest level of TGF beta signaling within the cells at the invasive front. We also established that stroma stiffness and the level of cellular TGF beta signaling positively correlated with each other and with the number of infiltrating tumor-activated, macrophages, which was highest in the more aggressive tumor subtypes. These findings indicate that human breast cancer progression and aggression, collagen linearization and stromal stiffening are linked and implicate tissue inflammation and TGF beta.

The tumor microenvironment is a dynamic landscape in which the physical and mechanical properties evolve dramatically throughout cancer progression. These changes are driven by enhanced tumor cell contractility and expansion of the growing tumor mass, as well as through alterations to the material properties of the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). Consequently, tumor cells are exposed to a number of different mechanical inputs including cell–cell and cell-ECM tension, compression stress, interstitial fluid pressure and shear stress. Oncogenes engage signaling pathways that are activated in response to mechanical stress, thereby reworking the cell's intrinsic response to exogenous mechanical stimuli, enhancing intracellular tension via elevated actomyosin contraction, and influencing ECM stiffness and tissue morphology. In addition to altering their intracellular tension and remodeling the microenvironment, cells actively respond to these mechanical perturbations phenotypically through modification of gene expression. Herein, we present a description of the physical changes that promote tumor progression and aggression, discuss their interrelationship and highlight emerging therapeutic strategies to alleviate the mechanical stresses driving cancer to malignancy.

No abstract

Maspin is an epithelial-specific tumor suppressor gene. Previous data suggest that maspin expression may redirect poorly differentiated tumor cells to better differentiated phenotypes. Further, maspin is the first and only endogenous polypeptide inhibitor of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) identified thus far. In the current study, to address what central program of tumor cell redifferentiation is regulated by maspin and how tumor microenvironments further define the effects of maspin, we conducted a systematic and extensive comparison of prostate tumor cells grown in 2-dimensional culture, in 3-dimensional collagen I culture, and as in vivo bone tumors. We showed that maspin was sufficient to drive prostate tumor cells through a spectrum of temporally and spatially polarized cellular processes of redifferentiation, a reversal of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Genes commonly regulated by maspin were a small subset of HDAC target genes that are closely associated with epithelial differentiation and TGFβ signaling. These results suggest that a specific endogenous HDAC inhibitor may regulate one functionally related subset of HDAC target genes, although additional maspin-induced changes of gene expression may result from tumor interaction with its specific microenvironments. Currently, EMT is recognized as a critical step in tumor progression. To this end, our current study uncovered a link between maspin and a specific mechanism of prostate epithelial differentiation that can reverse EMT.

Prenylation inhibitors have gained increasing attention as potential therapeutics for cancer. Initial work focused on inhibitors of farnesylation , but more recently geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitors (GGTIs) have begun to be evaluated for their potential antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we have developed a nonpeptidomimetic GGTI, termed GGTI-2Z [(5-nitrofuran-2-yl)methyl-(2Z,6E,10E)-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadeca-2,6,10,14-tetraenyl 4-chlorobutyl(methyl)phosphoramidate], which in combination with lovastatin inhibits geranylgeranyl transferase I (GGTase I) and GGTase II/RabGGTase, without affecting farnesylation. The combination treatment results in a G 0 /G 1 arrest and synergistic inhibition of proliferation of cultured STS-26T malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor cells. We also show that the antiproliferative activity of drugs in combination occurs in the context of autophagy. The combination treatment also induces autophagy in the MCF10.DCIS model of human breast ductal carcinoma in situ and in 1c1c7 murine hepatoma cells, where it also reduces proliferation. At the same time, there is no detectable toxicity in normal immortalized Schwann cells. These studies establish GGTI-2Z as a novel geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate derivative that may work through a new mechanism involving the induction of autophagy and, in combination with lovastatin, may serve as a valuable paradigm for developing more effective strategies in this class of antitumor therapeutics.Lipid modifications of proteins are known to facilitate their membrane association, cellular localization, and protein-protein interactions, which are related to their functions including cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, and invasion. Most GTPases, like Ras, contain a C-terminal CaaX motif that undergoes prenylation catalyzed by prenyl transferase enzymes, including farnesyl transferase (FTase) or geranylgeranyl transferase I (GGTase I), followed by serial modification via several other enzymes (Konstantinopoulos et al., 2007). The substrate specificities of FTase and GGTase I are not mutually exclusive and, therefore, cross-prenylation can