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Gender-related barriers to immunization are key targets to improve immunization coverage and equity. We used individual-level demographic and health survey data from 52 low- and middle-income countries to examine the relationship between women’s social independence (measured by the Survey-based Women’s emPowERment (SWPER) Global Index) and childhood immunization. The primary outcome was receipt of three doses of the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine (DTP3) among children aged 12–35 months; we secondarily examined failure to receive any doses of DTP-containing vaccines. We summarized immunization coverage indicators by social independence tertile and estimated crude and adjusted summary measures of absolute and relative inequality. We conducted all analyses at the country level using individual data; median results across the 52 examined countries are also presented. In crude comparisons, median DTP3 coverage was 12.3 (95% CI 7.9; 16.3) percentage points higher among children of women with the highest social independence compared with children of women with the lowest. Thirty countries (58%) had a difference in coverage between those with the highest and lowest social independence of at least 10 percentage points. In adjusted models, the median coverage was 7.4 (95% CI 5.0; 9.1) percentage points higher among children of women with the highest social independence. Most countries (41, 79%) had statistically significant relative inequality in DTP3 coverage by social independence. The findings suggest that greater social independence for women was associated with better childhood immunization outcomes, adding evidence in support of gender-transformative strategies to reduce childhood immunization inequities.

The migrations of the Pacific Coast population of Anas carolinensis parallel in time and space those of Anas acuta. Both use the same migration routes along the coast and along the main north and south river systems of the interior. So also both nest more commonly in Alaska than elsewhere. The peak of the spring migration usually is reached in late March or early April; the peak of the autumn migration usually is in late October and early November. A relatively large number normally winter on the Coastal Plain. Very few winter in the interior. Study of banding data reveals that (1) autumn transients through the Coastal Plain follow the coast route south to the mouth of the Columbia River and beyond through Oregon and California, rarely passing east of the High Sierras, (2) few individuals among the population following interior routes reach the coast, the tendency being to swing eastward to the Great Basin. The two main flyways through British Columbia, one on the coast the other through the interior, differ in at least one important respect, viz., along the interior route are many more or less isolated areas of suitable nesting grounds whereas on the coast there are none. A small nesting population, fluctuating annually in numbers, is widely distributed through the interior, the center of abundance being the Cariboo Parklands—the term abundance being used in a relative sense. Actually the population is small and dispersed. In the year 1938 a total of only 17 broods was counted on a study area of 60 sq. mi. containing a high average of highly productive waterfowl territory. Smaller counts were made here in each of the years following 1938. Egg-laying begins in May; there is some loss of early clutches through crow predation compensated for by later, and usually more successful, nesting. It is not unusual for females to be incubating a second clutch of eggs in early July. Nest sites are in dry places nearly always adjacent to a small pond or marsh in the grasslands. The earliest and latest dates for records of downy young are June 20 and Aug. 10. The average number of young in 48 broods counted in July, and 17 broods counted in August, was the same viz. 6.2. This high survival rate may be attributed in part to the spirited defense of young commonly practised by the female parent. Adult males in small number may associate on a common loafing place during the egg-laying period, and for a week or so after incubation has started. Later they retreat to marsh habitat and begin the yearly molt. Full eclipse of the body plumage usually is attained prior to renewal of the flight feathers. The molt from eclipse to nuptial dress is not completed until late October. The first adult plumage of young males is not fully attained until January. The sex ratio appears to maintain a not unfavorable biological balance—a total of 4264 banded green-winged teal was composed of 2225 males and 2039 females. The food range of the species is not extensive. Seeds, chiefly those of aquatic plants, were present in the stomachs of all 69 adults examined, and in many constituted the bulk of food eaten. Insects are second, miscellaneous animals third, in importance. The green-winged teal is a valuable game species; none of its habits is detrimental to agricultural or other human interests.