Numerous studies have indicated that lower socioeconomic status (SES) is related to poor health, in terms of both morbidity and mortality. immortal,"''4(0"237) resulting in an artificially low Latino mortality rate.Although the salmon bias hypothesis has not been tested, some evidence suggests that it is plausible. One study'5 estimated return migration rates ofvarious foreign-born groups based on data from a program requiring immigrants to submit yearly address reports to the Immigration and Naturalization Service. Lower-and upper-bound return migration estimates (assuming a 50% and 100% response rate for filing address reports) ranged from 15.6% to 56.2% for Mexicans, 52.4% to 72.5% for South Americans, and 49.6% to 69.5% for Central Americans and Caribbean persons (excluding Cubans).Although return migration (both permanent and temporary) depends on specific community, economic, and social network factors, 1617 it can be substantial. As many as 75% of households in Mexican migrant towns engage in return migration from the United States.'8 Despite the methodologic shortcomings and the specificity of communities surveyed, these studies suggest that the salmon effect and healthy migrant hypothe-

In 1988, the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (NVVRS) of a representative sample of 1200 veterans estimated that 30.9% had developed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) during their lifetimes and that 15.2% were currently suffering from PTSD. The study also found a strong dose-response relationship: As retrospective reports of combat exposure increased, PTSD occurrence increased. Skeptics have argued that these results are inflated by recall bias and other flaws. We used military records to construct a new exposure measure and to cross-check exposure reports in diagnoses of 260 NVVRS veterans. We found little evidence of falsification, an even stronger doseresponse relationship, and psychological costs that were lower than previously estimated but still substantial. According to our fully adjusted PTSD rates, 18.7% of the veterans had developed warrelated PTSD during their lifetimes and 9.1% were currently suffering from PTSD 11 to 12 years after the war; current PTSD was typically associated with moderate impairment.

This retrospective chart review study of 227 participants examined the psychiatric profiles of outpatient adolescents ages 12 to 19 years (M = 15.08 years, SD = 1.72 years) engaging in different types of deliberate self-harm (DSH) behaviors. Participants were divided into four groups: no deliberate self-harm (NoDSH; n = 119), nonsuicidal self-injury only (NSSI only; n = 30), suicide attempt only (n = 38), and suicide attempt plus NSSI (n = 40). Those who attempted suicide were more likely to have major depressive disorder and/or posttraumatic stress disorder than those who engaged in NSSI only. Those who engaged in any type of DSH were more likely to have features of borderline personality disorder than those who did not engage in DSH. The suicidal ideation levels of those in the NSSI group were similar to those in the NoDSH group. Findings offer empirical support for the importance of distinguishing between suicidal and nonsuicidal self-harm behaviors.