To determine the independent contribution of specific immunologic and nutritional factors on survival in HIV-1 disease, CD4 cell count, antiretroviral treatment, plasma levels of vitamins A, E, B6, and B12 and minerals selenium and zinc were considered in relation to relative risk for HIV-related mortality. Immune parameters and nutrients known to affect immune function were evaluated at 6-month intervals in 125 HIV-1-seropositive drug-using men and women in Miami, FL, over 3.5 years. A total of 21 of the HIV-1-infected participants died of HIV-related causes during the 3.5-year longitudinal study. Subclinical malnutrition (i.e., overly low levels of prealbumin, relative risk [RR] = 4.01, p < 0.007), deficiency of vitamin A (RR = 3.23, p < 0.03), vitamin B12 deficiency (RR = 8.33, p < 0.009), zinc deficiency (RR = 2.29.1, p < 0.04), and selenium deficiency (RR = 19.9, p < 0.0001) over time, but not zidovudine treatment, were shown to each be associated with HIV-1-related mortality independent of CD4 cell counts <200/mm3 at baseline, and CD4 counts over time. When all factors that could affect survival, including CD4 counts <200/mm3 at baseline, CD4 levels over time, and nutrient deficiencies were considered jointly, only CD4 counts over time (RR = 0.69, p < 0.04) and selenium deficiency (RR = 10.8, p < 0.002) were significantly associated with mortality. These results indicate that selenium deficiency is an independent predictor of survival for those with HIV-1 infection.

The effects of alcohol abuse on HIV disease progression have not been definitively established. A prospective, 30-month, longitudinal study of 231 HIV(+) adults included history of alcohol and illicit drug use, adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART), CD4(+) cell count, and HIV viral load every 6 months. Frequent alcohol users (two or more drinks daily) were 2.91 times (95% CI: 1.23-6.85, p = 0.015) more likely to present a decline of CD4 to

Background Adequate zinc is critical for immune function; however, zinc deficiency occurs in >50% of HIV-infected adults. We examined the safety and efficacy of long-term zinc supplementation on HIV disease progression. Methods A prospective randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted with 231 HIV+ adults with low plasma zinc levels (<0.75 μg/ml), randomly assigned into zinc (12 mg of elemental zinc for women and 15 mg for men) or placebo, for 18 months. The primary endpoint was immunological failure. HIV-viral load and CD4+ cell count were determined every 6 months. Questionnaires, pill-counts, plasma zinc and C-reactive protein (hsCRP) were used to monitor adherence with study supplements and ART. Intent-to-treat analysis utilized multiple-event analysis, treating CD4+ cell count <200 cells/mm3 as recurrent immunological failure event. Cox proportional-hazard models and the general-linear model were used to analyze morbidity and mortality data. Results Zinc supplementation for 18 months reduced four-fold the likelihood of immunological failure, controlling for age, gender, lack of food, baseline CD4+ cell count, viral load, and antiretroviral therapy (RR=0.24[95%CI:0.10,0.56],p<0.002). Viral load indicated poor control with ART but was not affected by zinc supplementation. Zinc supplementation also reduced the rate of diarrhea by more than half (OR=0.4[95%CI:0.183-0.981],p=0.019) compared to placebo. There was no significant difference in mortality between the two groups. Conclusion This study demonstrated that long-term (18-month) zinc supplementation at nutritional levels delayed immunological failure and decreased diarrhea over time. This evidence supports the use of zinc supplementation as an adjunct therapy in HIV+ adult cohorts with poor viral control. Summary This study demonstrated that long-term (18-month) zinc supplementation at nutritional levels delayed immunological failure and decreased diarrhea over time. This evidence supports the use of zinc supplementation as an adjunct therapy in HIV+ adult cohorts with poor viral control.

Cigarette smoking has been identified as an independent risk factor for many human diseases. However, the association between cigarette smoking and illegal drug use has not been thoroughly investigated. We have analyzed the 1994 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse to clarify whether cigarette smoking has any effect on the initiation of illegal drug use. Data from 17,809 respondents completing the 1994 "new" (1994-B) questionnaire were analyzed. Logistic regression analyses were performed with the use of statistical package SUDAAN, taking into consideration the multistage sampling design. The results show that those who had smoked cigarettes were far more likely to use cocaine (OR = 7.5; 95% CI: 5.7-9.9), heroin (OR = 16.0; 95% CI: 6.8-37.9), crack (OR = 13.9; 95% CI: 7.9-24.5) and marijuana (OR = 7.3; 95% CI: 6.2-8.7). The associations are consistent across age-strata and remain after adjusting for race and gender. This study suggests that cigarette smoking may be a gateway drug to illegal drug use.