The aim of this study was to determine the antibiogram of bacterial isolates from Tympanotonus fuscatus var. radula sold in markets in Nasarawa State. Nigeria. Samples of Tympanotonus fuscatus var. radula (periwinkles) were bought from soup ingredient sellers at different sale locations in Keffi, Masaka and Orange markets and were analyzed using standard bacteriological methods. The bacterial isolates were identified using morphological, cultural and biochemical techniques. The total bacteria count varied from 1.18–3.20 x 108 CFU/g for the raw samples while the total bacterial count for the boiled samples varied from 0–1.57 x 108 CFU/g. Periwinkle samples with shells from Masaka market had the highest bacterial load with a mean total bacterial count of 2.94 x 10⁸ CFU/g and mean total coliform count of 2.80 x 10⁶ CFU/g. Raw periwinkle samples with shells had a higher bacterial load than samples without shells. There was also a drastic reduction in the bacterial load in the periwinkle samples after boiling under laboratory conditions. The bacteria isolated were Bacillus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus were the Gram-positive bacteria isolated. Enterobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Serratia spp. and Proteus spp. The most frequently occurring gram positive bacteria was Escherichia coli with an isolation frequency of 6(24%), the least frequently occurring was Bacillus spp., 8(32)%. Antibiotic susceptibility test showed that all the gram negative organisms exhibited sensitivity to ciprofloxacin: Escherichia coli (32 mm), Enterobacter spp. (41.5 mm), Proteus spp. (40.0 mm), Salmonella spp. (37.0 mm), Serratia spp. (26.0 mm), Pseudomonas spp. (23.0 mm). All the gram negative organisms showed marked resistance to vancomycin: Escherichia coli (12.0 mm), Enterobacter spp. (10.0 mm), Proteus spp. (11.0 mm), Salmonella spp. (5.0 mm), Serratia spp. (10.0 mm) and Pseudomonas spp. (4.5 mm).

The broad use of packaged herbal medicinal products has highlighted many issues associated with the quality, safety, and efficacy (QSE) of these products. Regardless of extensive applications of herbal medicines, this fact cannot be denied that the plant materials are exposed to various contaminants like toxic elements, pesticide residues, insects etc. But the main contaminants responsible for the deterioration of the herbal medicinal products (HMPs) are the microbes. They exert a bad impact on the overall quality and shelf life of the herbal products. The qualities of these products not only revealed changes in the physical appearance but could also pose a risk of acquisition of pathogenic microbial agents such as bacteria spores and mycotoxins to those taking these products. Exposure to these microbial agents can cause adverse health effect and toxicity. The integrity of composition depends upon the harvesting, handling, packaging, distribution, and storage conditions. In absence of good manufacturing practice, however, the nutritional richness of HMPs makes the product good medium for microbial growth, vehicle of microbial pathogens and associated complications. In Nigeria the issues of non-standardization, improper regulation and registration of these herbal products has raised a lot of questions about the inherent health risk associated with the consumption of these products, especially now there is increasing popularity of the use of herbal medicines. This paper addresses microorganisms and their agents as the major contaminants of herbal medicinal products. It reviews precise sources of microbial contamination and harmful effects of contaminated herbal medicinal products, when consumed by the consumers. It also reviews the methodological aspects regarding the influence of different commonly used pharmaceutical preparation techniques on the microbiological criteria of the products. And finally discussed the way forward to ascertain these quality, safety, and efficacy (QSE), of herbal medicinal products, quality standards which could be considered for guidelines and or possible inclusion in herbal pharmacopeia.

It was reported in 2005 during WHO survey that about 70-80% of the world population use medicinal plants either in their crude unmodified form or partially in their modified semi-synthetic form of plant sources in their primary healthcare. The present study investigated the phytochemicals and antimicrobial activities of the leaf extracts of Cerathoteca sesamoides and Chromolaena odorata to ascertain their potentials in herbal medicine. Fresh leaf of the plants obtained from Lafia in Nasarawa State, Nigeria were dried, powdered, and subjected to methanolic extraction, partition, phytochemical, and antimicrobial analyses using standard methods. Partitions from n-hexane, methanol, ethyl acetate, chloroform, and residue extracts were tested against clinical bacteria Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and fungus Candida albicans. Among the four different solvents used in partitioning methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of both plants contain flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, and cardiac glycosides. Saponins were absent in the n-hexane and chloroform extracts of C. odorata and the ethyl acetate extract of C. sesamoides. While flavonoids were present in the n-hexane extracts of C. odorata, they were absent in C. sesamoides. Anthraquinone and reducing sugar were absent in all the solvent extracts of both medicinal plants. The antimicrobial susceptibility tests showed that n-hexane and residue extracts of both plants had no activity against the tested microorganisms. The chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts of C. sesamoides and C. odorata (at 12.5 mg/ml) were active against all the tested clinical bacteria K. spp., E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and C. albicans. The methanolic extracts of both plants were active against the bacterial isolates but inactive against C. albicans. The minimum bactericidal concentration of these plant extracts was ≥50 mg, while the minimum inhibition concentrations ranged between 12.5 mg and ≥50 mg. The findings showed that the chloroform or ethyl acetate extracts of the leaves of these plant drugs could be used to treat urinary tract infections.

Aim: This study aimed to identify fungi isolated from Tympanotonus fuscatus var. radula and evaluate its level of susceptibility to known antifungal compounds. Place and Duration of Study: Biotechnology Advanced Research Centre, Sheda Science and Technology Complex, Abuja between September and December 2019. Methods: Tympanotonus fuscatus var. radula samples were purchased from the Keffi, Masaka, and Orange markets in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Fungal isolation was achieved using Sabouraud dextrose agar supplemented with chloramphenicol and incubated at 28ᵒC for 5 days. ITS-1 and ITS-4 primers were used at 94°C for 2 min, 52°C for 1 min, and 72°C for 2 min for the polymerase chain reaction before sequencing at Inqaba Biotech South Africa. Disk diffusion technique was employed for antifungal susceptibility testing. Results: Data obtained revealed that the suspected fungal species exhibited a generally higher level of resistance (19-40 mm) to 1 µg voriconazole in addition to a 20-35.5 mm zone of inhibition against 10 µg ketoconazole. Blast sequence analysis of the isolated samples revealed a 99.65% sequence homology to Meyerozyma guilliermondii, 99.38% to Fusarium oxysporium isolate E-225 1 and 96.23% to Aspergillus terreus isolate A2S4.   Conclusion: Food safety involves isolating and accurately identifying disease causing pathogens such as fungi in food. Based on the fungal load obtained from this study, proper cooking and handling of sea-food which would otherwise cause disease, is highly recommended.