A Round Robin Programme was established by a working group of Commission X in 1997 in order to evaluate the possibilities of residual stress and distortion prediction (RSDP) in welded structures and to validate and benchmark prediction codes based on finite element simulation of the welding process. Calculations on residual tresses have been carried out of an austenitic steel plate with well defined material and geometrical data, welding conditions and with the proposal to use the kinematic hardening model.
The prediction and minimization of welding distortions and the evaluation of the residual stress state after welding using numerical methods are increasingly gaining importance. These numerical models are used to optimize welding processes with respect to distortion. However, the computational time required for a transient 3-D calculation, particularly for large components, often hinders commercial usage of these approaches. Therefore, simulations have to simplify individual aspects. Due to the fact that model verification often failed according to abundant experimental research efforts, it cannot be proven whether the deformations and residual stresses calculated by those simplified models are trustworthy. With the help of the validated simulations of the IIW round robin tests and of variational calculus, this work shows the influences of sheet geometry and model simplifications, e.g. 2-D modelling, on the calculation of distortions and residual stresses. The round robin tests were performed using steel sheets made of an austenitic steel (316 LNSPH) which was bead-on-plate welded by TIG welding. The calculations for a varied sheet geometry show for the investigated process and for large components that a reduction to minimal sheet geometry is necessary and sufficient to determine the longitudinal stresses and the distortions. The transversal stresses are in general extremely sensitive to the sheet geometry.
In steel forming process chains residual stresses affect the final form of work pieces. This may have a detrimental effect, e. g. in the case of released residual stresses during laser welding of a shaft-hub connection, or may be used purposefully, as in the case of a selective application of residual stresses in thermal pre-stressing. During final heat treatment or rather hardening, distortion is essentially changed. In order to control or exploit the effect of residual stresses, they must be determined at first and their formation has also to be understood. One often neglected influence on the residual stresses is the dependence of the local flow stress, which strongly changes due to the structural transformation. Especially for processes with a high heating and cooling rate the incomplete austenitisation limits the structural hardening during cooling. For both of the applications mentioned above, it will be demonstrated how this influence can be taken into account based on a model and how this influence affects the absolute quantity of residual stresses. The modeled shape changes and residual stresses results are substantiated using speckle photography, laser triangulation, x-ray and neutron diffraction measurements. Keywords: Residual stress determination / thermal forming / thermo-mechanics / transformation hardening / FEM-simulation /In umformenden Prozessketten können Eigenspannungen die endgültige Form von Werkstücken beeinflussen. Diese Eigenspannungen können, wie im Falle von geschweißten Welle-Narbe-Verbindungen, unerwünscht sein oder, wie im Falle des thermischen Vorspannens, gezielt zur Verzugsminimierung eingesetzt werden. Durch eine finale Wärmebehandlung oder einem Härten kann die Form und Maßhaltigkeit von Werkstücken wesentlich verändert werden. Um den Einfluss der Eigenspannungen auf Formänderungen in diesen Prozessschritten zu minimieren, muss zunächst die Entstehung der Eigenspannungen erklärt werden. Ein meist vernachlässigter Einfluss auf die Eigenspannungen ist die Entwicklung der lokalen Fließspannungen, die sich während einer Gefügeumwandlung deutlich verändern können. Vor allen Dingen während Prozessen mit schnellen Erwärm-und Abkühlgeschwindigkeiten wird die Gefügeaufhärtung durch eine unvollständige Austenitisierung beim Erwärmen begrenzt. Für beide oben erwähnten Anwendungen wird gezeigt, wie dieser Einfluss modellbasiert berücksichtigt werden kann. Die modellierten Formänderungen und Eigenspannungen werden durch Speckle-Photographie-, Lasertriangulation-, Röntgen-und Neutronen-Diffraktionsmessungen bestätigt.
In the current study displacements of a single angled tooth (helical gear, steel EN 20MnCr5) were measured with sub-pixel accuracy by means of Digital Speckle Photography (DSP). The main aim was to assess the in-process performance of DSP while measuring three dimensional deformations in a laser based heat treatment process. This task dictated the integration of DSP as a non-invasive experimental method, which is insensitive to different interfering effects, e. g. vibrations and varying coefficients of refraction, into the heat treatment setup. The results attained were compared with data from laser triangulation measurements and FEM-based temperature simulations and were found to show good agreement within the limitations of these methods. Knowledge of deformations of the component during the laser beam based heat treatment process allows an analysis of the effects of residual stress fields generated with a high power laser. This analysis aims at minimisation of unwanted distortions resulting from hardening heat treatment. Keywords: Speckle Photography / Laser based heat treatment / Sub-pixel accuracy /In dieser Veröffentlichung wird gezeigt, dass die Verschiebungen eines einzelnen Zahnes (Schräg-zahnrad, Stahl-EN 20MnCr5) mittels digitaler Speckle-Fotografie (DSP) mit sub-Pixel Genauigkeit gemessen werden kann. Das Ziel ist zu zeigen, dass sich diese In-Prozess-Messtechnik zur Vermessung dreidimensionaler Verformung während der Wärmebehandlung eignet. Bedingt durch das Einsatzgebiet, muss die Messtechnik kontaktfrei und unempfindlich gegen verschiedene stö-rende Effekte wie z.B. Vibrationen und wechselnde Brechungsindizes sein. Die erzielten Ergebnisse wurden mit Daten aus Laser-Triangulationsmessungen und FEM-basierten Temperatur-Simulationen verglichen. Es zeigte sich eine gute Übereinstimmung der Ergebnisse. Anhand der gemessenen Verschiebung soll evaluiert werden, inwieweit die Eigenspannungen des Bauteils durch einen Hochleistungslaser beeinflusst werden können, ohne dass sich das Bauteil verzieht.
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