Forests have considerable potential to help mitigate human-caused climate change and provide society with many cobenefits. However, climate-driven risks may fundamentally compromise forest carbon sinks in the 21st century. Here, we synthesize the current understanding of climate-driven risks to forest stability from fire, drought, biotic agents, and other disturbances. We review how efforts to use forests as natural climate solutions presently consider and could more fully embrace current scientific knowledge to account for these climate-driven risks. Recent advances in vegetation physiology, disturbance ecology, mechanistic vegetation modeling, large-scale ecological observation networks, and remote sensing are improving current estimates and forecasts of the risks to forest stability. A more holistic understanding and quantification of such risks will help policy-makers and other stakeholders effectively use forests as natural climate solutions.

Electronic and electrical contact applications of TiN require a detailed understanding of the surface chemistry behavior in a variety of operating environments. For electromechanical contacts, contact resistance is the figure of merit and is a strong function of the structure and chemistry of the surface region. Thin (on the order of a few monolayers) insulating or semiconducting overlayers on a metallic conductor can raise contact resistance several orders of magnitude. In this study low temperature (22-100 °C) oxidation kinetics of reactively sputtered Ti and TiN, coatings of varying composition exposed at three humidity levels have been examined by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) depth profiling, angle resolved XPS, and contact resistance measurements. Equilibrium overlayer conductivities can be up to nine orders of magnitude greater for TiN 10 than Ti metal.

SUMMARY— The following variables were determined at equilibrium between fish muscle and brine, all as functions of the salt concentration in the brine: salt concentration in the muscle, based on the volume of the muscle; salt concentration in the tissue water of the muscle; distribution coefficient of salt between muscle volume and brine; distribution coefficient of salt between muscle tissue water and brine. Secondary variables which further described the salting equilibria were also found as functions of salt concentration in the brine as follows, all based on unit weight of non‐salt solids in the salted muscle: weight of salt (S/NSS), weight of water (W/NSS), and volume (V/NSS). The salt concentration based on the muscle volume was found to increase continually with increasing brine concentration, as did the salt concentration in the tissue water and the salt content expressed as S/NSS. The distribution coefficient based on the muscle volume and the water and volume contents (W/NSS) and (V/NSS) were found to increase at first, pass through a maximum, and then decrease, all with increasing brine concentration. Within the limits of experimental error, the salt concentration in the tissue water was found to equal the salt concentration in the brine, so that the distribution coefficient calculated on this basis was always equal to unity and was independent of the salt concentration in the brine. The volume per unit weight of non‐salt solids (V/NSS) was found to be a direct linear function of the water content per weight of non‐salt solids (W/NSS) at all temperatures studied. Little difference was found between the equilibrium salting variables when salting was carried out at 5 and at 25°C; on the other hand, possibly due to “cooking” or heat denaturation of the muscle with consequent loss of water at that temperature, all variables were considerably lower when salting was carried out at 37°C. The “mean molar activity coefficient” of sodium chloride in fish muscle was determined as a function of salt concentration in the muscle. It was found to be always greater, and to vary more sharply with salt concentration, than the corresponding activity coefficient of salt in aqueous solution.

Articles you may be interested inIn-operando hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study on the impact of current compliance and switching cycles on oxygen and carbon defects in resistive switching Ti/HfO2/TiN cells Development of time resolved x-ray spectroscopy in high intensity laser-plasma interactions Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77, 10F322 (2006); 10.1063/1.2222340 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study of TiC films grown by annealing thin Ti films on graphite J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 15, 2029 (1997); 10.1116/1.580675 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study of the chemical interaction between BN and Ti/TiNMoisture and O 2 levels present during the reactive sputtering deposition of TiN have a marked impact on measured contact resistance. Results of an angular resolved x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) study of sputter deposited TiN as weU as Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) s~ow t~at oxynitrides are the predominant surface species on TiN. Two distinct oxynitride phases wIth dIfferent oxygen contents have been observed on TiN and the relative abundance of each phase appears to be a function of H 2 0 and oxygen levels present during reactive sputtering.

SUMMARY— The diffusion coefficient for the penetration of salt into swordfish muscle was not constant but depended upon the salt concentration in the muscle and upon the temperature; the coefficient‐salt concentration curve for 25°C had a minimum value at a salt concentration of approximately 1.5 moles/liter and was always lower in fish muscle than in aqueous salt solutions of the same salt concentration as the muscle. Other parameters which also served to characterize the migration of salt in fish muscle were determined as follows: the equivalent conductance of salted fish muscle was found to be an inverse linear function of the square root of the salt concentration in the muscle and to be always lower in muscle than in aqueous solutions of the same concentration as the muscle; the sodium and chloride ion transference numbers, found to be approximately of the same magnitude in muscle and in water, exhibited the same qualitative variation with salt concentration and with temperature in both media. As in aqueous solution, the diffusion coefficient and the equivalent conductance of salt in fish muscle were found to increase with increasing temperature. It was found that experimental values of the diffusion coefficient at a given temperature agreed reasonably well with values predicted by the equation is the diffusion coefficient in the muscle at infinite dilution and γ is the “mean molar activity coefficient” of salt, also in the muscle, at concentration c. The activation energies for salt diffusion in fish muscle and in water at infinite dilution were both found to be of the order of 4700 calories per gram‐mole, a value within the region of hydrogen‐bonding energies.