We argue that the great age of European witch trials reflected non‐price competition between the Catholic and Protestant churches for religious market share in confessionally contested parts of Christendom. Analyses of new data covering more than 43,000 people tried for witchcraft across 21 European countries over a period of five‐and‐a‐half centuries and more than 400 early modern European Catholic–Protestant conflicts support our theory. More intense religious‐market contestation led to more intense witch‐trial activity. And compared to religious‐market contestation, the factors that existing hypotheses claim were important for witch‐trial activity – weather, income and state capacity – were not.

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In 1992 the General Accounting Office (GAO) published a quantitative survey of Indian land ownership of twelve reservations, which was the first and still is the only survey of Indian land ownership. In our study we use 2010 data to show how ownership fractionation for these reservations has changed since the original GAO study. We find that, despite the whole of Congressional action regarding land fractionation, and the US Bureau of Indian Affairs' (BIA's) land consolidation programs, fractionation has not only continued, but BIA's complex recordkeeping workload has nearly doubled for the twelve reservations over the eighteen year interval. The GAO estimated that BIA's annual recordkeeping costs for these twelve reservations was between $40 and $50 million. With the addition of over a million new ownership records, due to fractionation, we estimate yearly recordkeeping costs have increased to $246 million in 2010. JEL-Code: O100, Y100.

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