The immune privileged nature of the CNS can make it vulnerable to chronic and latent infections. Little is known about the effects of lifelong brain infections, and thus inflammation, on the neurological health of the host. Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect any mammalian nucleated cell with average worldwide seroprevalence rates of 30%. Infection by Toxoplasma is characterized by the lifelong presence of parasitic cysts within neurons in the brain, requiring a competent immune system to prevent parasite reactivation and encephalitis. In the immunocompetent individual, Toxoplasma infection is largely asymptomatic, however many recent studies suggest a strong correlation with certain neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Here, we demonstrate a significant reduction in the primary astrocytic glutamate transporter, GLT-1, following infection with Toxoplasma. Using microdialysis of the murine frontal cortex over the course of infection, a significant increase in extracellular concentrations of glutamate is observed. Consistent with glutamate dysregulation, analysis of neurons reveal changes in morphology including a reduction in dendritic spines, VGlut1 and NeuN immunoreactivity. Furthermore, behavioral testing and EEG recordings point to significant changes in neuronal output. Finally, these changes in neuronal connectivity are dependent on infection-induced downregulation of GLT-1 as treatment with the ß-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone, rescues extracellular glutamate concentrations, neuronal pathology and function. Altogether, these data demonstrate that following an infection with T. gondii, the delicate regulation of glutamate by astrocytes is disrupted and accounts for a range of deficits observed in chronic infection.

Astrocytes regulate extracellular glutamate and water homeostasis through the astrocyte-specific membrane proteins glutamate transporter-1 (GLT1) and aquaporin-4 (AQP4), respectively. The role of astrocytes and the regulation of GLT1 and AQP4 in epilepsy are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the expression of GLT1 and AQP4 in the intrahippocampal kainic acid (IHKA) model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). We used real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blot, and immunohistochemical analysis at 1, 4, 7, and 30 days after kainic acid-induced status epilepticus (SE) to determine hippocampal glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, a marker for reactive astrocytes), GLT1, and AQP4 expression changes during the development of epilepsy (epileptogenesis). Following IHKA, all mice had SE and progressive increases in GFAP immunoreactivity and GFAP protein expression out to 30 days post-SE. A significant initial increase in dorsal hippocampal GLT1 immunoreactivity and protein levels were observed 1 day post SE and followed by a marked downregulation at 4 and 7 days post SE with a return to near control levels by 30 days post SE. AQP4 dorsal hippocampal protein expression was significantly downregulated at 1 day post SE and was followed by a gradual return to baseline levels with a significant increase in ipsilateral protein levels by 30 days post SE. Transient increases in GFAP and AQP4 mRNA were also observed. Our findings suggest that specific molecular changes in astrocyte glutamate transporters and water channels occur during epileptogenesis in this model, and suggest the novel therapeutic strategy of restoring glutamate and water homeostasis.

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is a bidirectional water channel that is found on astrocytes throughout the central nervous system. Expression is particularly high around areas in contact with cerebrospinal fluid, suggesting that AQP4 plays a role in fluid exchange between the cerebrospinal fluid compartments and the brain. Despite its significant role in the brain, the overall spatial and region-specific distribution of AQP4 has yet to be fully characterized. In this study, we used Western blotting and immunohistochemical techniques to characterize AQP4 expression and localization throughout the mouse brain. We observed AQP4 expression throughout the forebrain, subcortical areas, and brainstem. AQP4 protein levels were highest in the cerebellum with lower expression in the cortex and hippocampus. We found that AQP4 immunoreactivity was profuse on glial cells bordering ventricles, blood vessels, and subarachnoid space. Throughout the brain, AQP4 was expressed on astrocytic end-feet surrounding blood vessels but was also heterogeneously expressed in brain tissue parenchyma and neuropil, often with striking laminar specificity. In the cerebellum, we showed that AQP4 colocalized with the proteoglycan brevican, which is synthesized by and expressed on cerebellar astrocytes. Despite the high abundance of AQP4 in the cerebellum, its functional significance has yet to be investigated. Given the known role of AQP4 in synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus, the widespread and region-specific expression pattern of AQP4 suggests involvement not only in fluid balance and ion homeostasis but also local synaptic plasticity and function in distinct brain circuits.

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This randomized clinical trial studies the magnitude and time course of effects of cannabis on driving, effect of cannabis with different tetrahydrocannabinol amounts, possible tolerance effects, and accuracy of self-perception of impairment.