Preparing the skin of rodents for surgery often involves multiple applications of antiseptic agents. However, fewer applications may achieve the same antiseptic outcome. We evaluated the antimicrobial efficacy and effects on intraoperative body temperature of various surgical scrub agents, including novel waterless alcohol-based (WAB) options. Prior to ventral laparotomy, female C57BL/6 mice were treated with 0.9% saline (control); 70% ethanol; 10% povidone-iodine alternated with saline or 70% ethanol; 2% chlorhexidine digluconate alternated with saline or 70% ethanol; or 1 of 3 WAB products-commercial surgical scrub A, commercial surgical scrub B, or a common commercial hand sanitizer. Core temperatures were recorded, and aerobic culture swabs were collected from the surgical site at multiple time points. Intraoperative temperature trajectories for animals treated with scrub B, 10% povidone-iodine with saline, or hand sanitizer did not differ from saline (control). Temperature trajectories of mice treated with other scrub agents did differ significantly from saline. Bacteria were not detected at the operative site after 3 scrubs of 70% ethanol or 10% povidone-iodine alternated with ethanol, 2 scrubs of scrub A or B, 1 scrub of hand sanitizer, and both 1 and 3 scrubs of 2% chlorhexidine alternated with ethanol. Scrub B and 2% chlorhexidine-ethanol demonstrated prolonged antibacterial efficacy. Histology of corresponding haired skin sections revealed no differences in postoperative healing between groups, and no postoperative infections occurred. These results indicate that various novel WAB disinfectants, particularly scrub B (61% ethanol and 1% chlorhexidine gluconate), mitigate intraoperative temperature effects associated with several traditional agents and combinations. Furthermore, reduction of skin bacterial load without adverse effects on healing was seen with fewer than triplicate applications of most tested agents. Ultimately effective skin preparation can be achieved by using only 1 or 2 applications of scrub, thus rendering the triplicate skin-prep method unnecessary in laboratory mice.

Background Despite the common use of topical ophthalmic corticosteroids in dogs, detailed reports on systemic and dermatologic adverse effects are limited. Results Nine purpose-bred research Beagles were treated with difluprednate 0.05% ophthalmic emulsion in one or both eyes 2–3 times daily. Some difluprednate treated dogs developed mild to severe alopecia of the periocular region, face, and distal pinna (5/9). The median duration of treatment prior to onset of dermatologic signs for difluprednate treated dogs was 550 days (453–1160 days). Diagnostic testing included complete blood count (CBC) and serum biochemistry, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation testing combined with endogenous ACTH measurement, and skin biopsy. The CBC and chemistry were within normal limits for all dogs. There were varying degrees of suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis with difluprednate treatment. Dogs with the most profound alopecic changes had less pronounced HPA axis suppression compared to dogs with no integumentary changes. Skin biopsies demonstrated follicular atrophy and follicular keratosis. When topical difluprednate was reduced to unilateral therapy, the hair regrew on the untreated side of the face. In addition to the affected research dogs, a 7-year old female spayed Chihuahua that was being treated as a clinical patient with long-term difluprednate 0.05% ophthalmic emulsion developed generalized hypotrichosis on the head and body and a potbellied appearance. ACTH stimulation testing revealed suppression of the HPA axis with a mild increase in serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and a urine specific gravity of 1.016. The combination of clinical signs and laboratory abnormalities was supportive of iatrogenic hyperadrenocorticism. Conclusions In dogs long-term use of difluprednate ophthalmic emulsion results in HPA axis suppression and in some cases iatrogenic hyperadrenocorticism. A novel pattern of localized alopecia is suspected to be related to dermal absorption and local action due to superior potency and penetration compared to other commonly utilized ophthalmic corticosteroids.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a fungal pathogen of amphibians that originated in Asia, likely on the Korean peninsula, 27 and is now found on all continents that are home to amphibians. 20 Initial infection of an amphibian host is accomplished by motile, flagellated zoospores. These zoospores encyst within epidermal cells, germinate, and form intracellular sporangia, in which new zoospores develop, within the stratum corneum and stratum granulosum. Epidermal differentiation moves these sporangia to the skin surface, and mature zoospores are released into the external environment. 34 This intracellular proliferation of B. dendrobatidis within the host disrupts electrolyte balance and, in some cases, can lead to cardiac arrest and death. 36 Transmission of B. dendrobatidis between hosts occurs through a variety of methods, including close proximity to infected animals, which can shed considerable loads of infective zoospores into water systems; through direct contact, such as during mating; 34 and possibly through ingestion of infected prey. 15 B. dendrobatidis infects all 3 orders of amphibians (anurans [that is, frogs and toads]; urodeles [salamanders]; and caecilians) 14 and has been reported in more than 700 species of amphibians. 20 The spread of B. dendrobatidis has been linked to an overall global decline in amphibian populations, and this pathogen has contributed to population declines in almost 400 amphibian species that are currently listed as threatened. 20 The virulence of B. dendrobatidis infections varies among both host species and strains of the pathogen. 2,20 B. dendrobatidis has been shown to infect Taricha granulosa in the wild 29 and has been reported in captive-bred axolotls. 11,12,23 In addition, B. dendrobatidis can infect larval zebrafish, 19 creating potential concerns for spread between aquatic animal models when an outbreak is detected within a laboratory setting.A second member of the genus, B. salamandrivorans, was first described in 2013. 21 Like B. dendrobatidis, B. salamandrivorans appears to have originated in Asia 27 and infects epidermal tissue. 21 To date, B. salamandrivorans has been reported in salamanders and fire-bellied toads in the wild and has been shown to be capable of infecting anurans in the laboratory setting. 26,32 No reports of B. salamandrivorans infection in North America have been published. These 2 Batrachochytrium species are the only chytrid fungi known to infect vertebrates. 2 The current case report describes the diagnosis and treatment of chytridiomycosis due to B. dendrobatidis in laboratory colonies of axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) and rough-skinned newts

Surgical procedures are commonly performed using mice but can have major effects on their core body temperature, including development of hypothermia. In this study, we evaluated active perioperative warming with and without surgical draping with adherent plastic wrap to refine practices, improve animal welfare, and optimize research experiments. Mice were randomized into treatment groups (n = 6; 8 CD1 mice per group). Treatments included placement within a small-animal forced-air incubator at 38 °C for 30 min before surgery (Pre), after surgery (Post), or before and after surgery (Both). To explore the effect of surgical draping, one group received incubator warming before and after surgery in addition to surgical draping (Both/Drape), whereas another group received surgical draping only without incubator warming (Control/Drape). The final group of mice received neither warming nor draping (Control). Subcutaneous temperature transponders were placed in all mice. Approximately 5 d after transponder placement, mice were anesthetized with ketamine–xylazine and underwent laparotomy. Subcutaneous body temperatures were collected perioperatively from transponders, and rectal temperatures were taken every minute during surgery. For recovery from anesthesia, mice were placed either in a standard cage on a warm water blanket set to 38 °C (100.4 °F) or in the incubator. Subcutaneous body temperatures were significantly higher in mice prewarmed for 30 min (Pre, Both, Both/Drape) as compared with mice that were not prewarmed. Anesthetic recovery times were significantly longer for mice placed in the incubator (Pre, Post, Both, Both/Drape) than for those that did not receive incubator warming (Control, Control/Drape). Mean intraoperative rectal temperatures of Both/Drape mice tended to be greater than those of mice in the Both group, suggesting a warming benefit of surgical draping. Using a forced air incubator and adherent plastic draping mitigated body temperature loss in mice during both surgery and postoperative recovery.

Rodents are frequently used for models that require surgical procedures. At our institution, laboratory rats are increasingly preferred for investigations of neurologic disorders, cardiovascular interventions, and assessment and treatment of addictive and depressive behaviors. For these types of studies, surgical preparations of the head and neck areas are necessary for catheterization and instrumentation. Based upon our former work in laboratory mice, we sought to improve rat surgery outcomes and confirm the efficacy of a waterless alcohol-based (WAB) antiseptic for skin disinfection prior to incision. In addition, we wanted to investigate whether active warming efforts improved perioperative body temperatures for rats to aid in return to consciousness. Prior to cranial surgical incision and placement in stereotactic equipment, rats were assessed after skin preparation with WAB and after thermal interventions, including prewarming cages for 30 min before anesthesia and delivery of warmed fluid (NaCl) supplementation. Core temperatures were recorded and aerobic culture swabs collected from surgical sites at multiple time points. As previously shown in mice, bacterial counts in rats were effectively diminished by WAB agents. Assessment of intraoperative body temperature trajectories did not identify appreciable differences between control rats and rats that were exposed to prewarming or warmed fluid supplementation or both. However, heavier male rats recovered more rapidly from isoflurane anesthesia than did lighter male and female rats. Although these thermal support measures did not significantly improve anesthetic recovery times in rats, animals warmed for 30 min trended toward a faster return to righting reflex after exposure to isoflurane. These findings confirm that WAB antiseptic is an acceptable option for skin preparation in rats and suggest that continued evaluation of thermal interventions remains of interest for improved outcomes in rat surgery.