All animals, whether vertebrate or invertebrate, must be capable of reacting to acute stressors, such as escaping from predators, and most do so with a suite of transient physiological changes that temporarily enhance survival. Some of these changes include mobilization of immune cells and increased cardiac output. A small but growing number of studies have begun to show that certain parasites appear capable of modifying such responses. We addressed this topic using a natural host and parasite system, that is, a nematode (Chondronema passali) that parasitizes horned passalus beetles, Odontotaenius disjunctus (family Passalidae), of the eastern United States. With a series of experiments, we sought to determine whether this parasite affects (1) the immune reaction to stress, (2) the output of stress-induced alarm calls, or (3) the increase in heart rate that occurs in response to acute stressors, with the stressors being mechanical or thermal. Results showed that hemocyte density increased after both stressors in nonparasitized beetles but did not increase in parasitized beetles. While mobilization of immune cells would enhance host immunity during stress, this would also be damaging to the nematode, so this scenario appears to benefit the parasite. We found no evidence that the nematode suppresses the overall reaction to stress (or prevents stress from occurring), since parasitized beetles did not differ from nonparasitized ones in alarm call rates or in heart beat frequency after exposure to mechanical stressors. Suppression of the host's normal immune reaction to stressful stimuli could translate to delayed or even reduced wound healing or pathogen resistance during these events. This project is a rare demonstration of parasite manipulation of host immune response to acute stress and should stimulate further investigations into the interactive nature of stress and parasites.

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The rigours of the daily lives of insects sometimes lead to minor injuries and wounds, which must be healed to avoid entry of pathogens and to resume normal function. Such healing requires energy, which must be diverted from other bodily reserves. What happens if energy reserves are already low, as would occur in individuals coping with internal parasites? This question is addressed in the presemt study, using horned passalus beetles (Odontotaenius disjunctus) and their naturally-occurring nematode Chondronema passali. Oxygen consumption rates are tested at rest, as well as after an experimental wound is applied, to evaluate energy requirements of wound-healing in parasitized and nonparasitized hosts. Furthermore, wound-healing rates are visually tracked with a numerical scoring system to directly measure the cost of parasitism on healing. At rest, parasitized beetles show no elevation in respiration (oxygen consumption). After wounding, the oxygen consumption of parasitized beetles is 10% higher than that in nonparasitized beetles. Beetles with moderate-to heavy worm burdens have slower healing than those with few or no nematodes. These results show that this parasite carries little cost to the host during day-to-day activities, whereas, during times of immediate energy demand, there is a cost; hosts require more energy to repair wounds, and the wounds take longer to close. This conclusion leads to the question of whether this parasite is truly benign, and how many other apparently benign parasites, in insects or other animals, have similar 'hidden' effects.