Using a sung continuation of 25 interrupted two-tone melodic begin nings, melodic expectancies were obtained from 91 students in pro fessional music training schools in three countries. Expectancy patterns included both conjunct and disjunct melodic motion ranging up to a minor seventh, but the majority of responses were of half-and whole-steps. Expectancy generating strength varied considerably be tween melodic beginnings. Differences in expectancy patterns were found as a function of melodic beginning and cultural milieu, but not of voice register nor of training level.

The fulfillment and violation of melodic expectancies influences musicians' ability to perceive, identify, and recall melodic patterns as measured by transcription accuracy. Twenty-seven musicians registered their melodic continuation expectancies by singing. Those expectancies were used to generate six types of brief melodies that varied in their relationships to the individual musician's expectancies: fulfillment of strong expectancies, fulfillment of weak expectancies, interval-size violation of strong or weak expectancies, and contour violation of strong or weak expectancies. The test melodies were presented aurally for transcription. Analysis of variance revealed that violations of strong expectancies led to more errors than expectancy fulfillment. Contour violations did not lead to more errors than mere interval-size violations. Analysis of the pattern of errors suggests that the salience of contour in melody strongly resists the influence of expectancy upon perception, but does not completely overcome it.The process of expectation or anticipation of future events in listening to music is the focus of several theories of music perception. Meyer (1956Meyer ( , 1967 contends that each music style has characteristic patterns of pitch, rhythm, harmony, etc. that occur more often in that style than in others. Through experience with styles, listeners internalize these probabilities of occurrence which become the basis of their expectancies for future events while listening to unfolding music patterns. Expectancies are also influenced by Gestalt laws. These laws dictate that perceptual processes strive towards completion, good continuation, regularity and symmetry, and expectancies reflect these strivings. If these expectancies are violated in music listening, inaccuracies occur in the memory for these events. According to Meyer, encountering unexpected events contributes to a listener's emotional response to music.Jones (1981, 1982) suggests that expectancies in music listening are determined by the "ideal prototypes" of a music style. These prototypes reflect the perfect symmetries which underlie, but rarely appear, in a particular style; expectancies, therefore, are often violated in music. While unexpected events create interest in music, they are also thought to be more difficult to recall. Krumhansl, Bharucha, and Castellano (1982) propose that music patterns are not random events, but conform to patterns that are characteristic of a music culture. Through experience with these patterns, listeners abstract and internalize the underlying regularities in them. These internalizations are called cognitive representations of music, and give rise to expectations as to what is likely to follow in an unfolding music pattern. Krumhansl (1979) suggests that the structure of these internalized regularities also influences the stability of memory traces.Several empirical studies in the psychological and psychomusical literature lend support to the hypothesized existence of prototypes, cognitive representations,

The effects of two factors: music expertise and retention interval, on memory for music were examined in an experiment consisting of two phases: a current phase, comprised of a number of standard/comparison-type trials, and a delayed phase, comprised of music excerpts played in later sessions compared with excerpts played in earlier sessions. All stimuli were drawn from intact music compositions. The shape of the forgetting curve over the four retention intervals (0, 20, 60, and 180 s) resembled the curve characteristic of short-term memory, even though the two longest retention intervals were times generally ascribed to long-term memory. Differences in memory were found between the extreme levels of music experience: experts and nonmusicians, thus implicating the influence of experience on memory for music. In the delayed phase, no differences occurred as a function of experience, but differences were found between comparisons presented in context and comparisons presented as targets and also as a function of the number of repetitions of the comparisons.

No abstract

Let me begin by thanking those who placed my name in nomination for this award, as well as the Music Education Research Council and the National Executive Board of the Music Educators NationalConference for the honor they have bestowed upon me. One does not develop in any arena of activity without the inspiration of others. For that, I am grateful to my colleagues and students over the years, who have challenged my ideas and, as a result, have caused me to think in ever-new ways.Certainly, some people stand out as major players in my development. One in particular is the late William Bergsma, who, as director of the School of Music at the University of Washington in the 1960s and early 1970s, understood that the musician's need to know could not be satisfied unless appropriate means for acquiring knowledge were facilitated in the academic community. He had the vision to inaugurate a program of systematic research intended to cut across all divisions of music and to serve as a complement to the more traditional historical and theoretic/analytic research programs already in place. I dedicate my remarks today to his memory and to his vision.Over the years that I have been involved in music research, like you, I have observed a variety of motivations that have driven individuals' research. One such motivation has been an RFP (Request for Proposals) from some funding agency. Another is a graduate requirement to complete a thesis or dissertation. Another is the James C. Carlsen is Professor