The immune response to dystrophin-deficient muscle promotes the pathology of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and the mdx mouse model of DMD. In this investigation, we find that the release of major basic protein (MBP) by eosinophils is a prominent feature of DMD and mdx dystrophy and that eosinophils lyse muscle cells in vitro by the release of MBP-1. We also show that eosinophil depletions of mdx mice by injections of anti-chemokine receptor-3 reduce muscle cell lysis, although lysis of mdx muscle membranes is not reduced by null mutation of MBP-1 in vivo. However, ablation of MBP-1 expression in mdx mice produces other effects on muscular dystrophy. First, fibrosis of muscle and hearts, a major cause of mortality in DMD, is greatly reduced by null mutation of MBP-1 in mdx mice. Furthermore, either ablation of MBP-1 or eosinophil depletion causes large increases in cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) in mdx muscles. The increase in CTLs in MBP-1-null mice does not reflect a general shift toward a Th1 inflammatory response, because the mutation had no significant effect on the expression of interferon-gamma, inducible nitric oxide synthase or tumor necrosis factor. Rather, MBP-1 reduces the activation and proliferation of splenocytes in vitro, indicating that MBP-1 acts in a more specific immunomodulatory role to affect the inflammatory response in muscular dystrophy. Together, these findings show that eosinophil-derived MBP-1 plays a significant role in regulating muscular dystrophy by attenuating the cellular immune response and promoting tissue fibrosis that can eventually contribute to increased mortality.

Summary Based on primary sequence comparisons and genomic context, Npun_F4153 (SigG)/Npun_F4154 (SapG) of the cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme were hypothesized to encode an ECF sigma factor/anti-sigma factor pair. Transcription of sigG increased in heterocysts and akinetes, and after EDTA treatment. Interaction between SigG and the predicted cytoplasmic domain of SapG was observed in vitro. A SigG-GFP translational fusion protein localized to the periphery of vegetative cells in vivo, but lost this association following heat stress. A sigG mutant was unable to survive envelope damage caused by heat or EDTA, but was able to form functional heterocysts. Akinetes in the mutant strain appeared normal, but these cultures were less resistant to lysozyme and cold treatments than those of the wild-type strain. The SigG in vivo regulon was determined before and during akinete differentiation using DNA microarray analysis, and found to include multiple genes with putative association to the cell envelope. Mapped promoters common to both arrays enabled identification of a SigG promoter-binding motif that was supported in vivo by reporter studies, and in vitro by run-off transcription experiments. These findings support SigG/SapG as a sigma/anti-sigma pair involved in repair of envelope damage resulting from exogenous sources or cellular differentiation.

Purpose of Review In this study, we compile and curate data from 2012, 2013, and 2014 on flared gas and generated wastewater associated with hydraulic fracturing operations in seven major shale regions of the USA. In the process, we provide an historical perspective of the management practices of flared gas and wastewater prior to the decline in oil prices in 2015. An engineering assessment of the technical potential for repurposing the energy from flared gas for treating hydraulic fracturing wastewater is also considered. Recent Findings The seven shale regions were evaluated using mass balances and thermodynamic analysis of the wastewater and flared gas volumes using data compiled from state, federal, and private sources for each region. After curating the publicly available data, we determined that from 2012 through 2014, the Bakken, Marcellus, Utica, and Niobrara flared between 2 and 48 times the amount of natural gas needed to provide energy for treatment of the wastewater produced from the oil and gas industry. The Permian Basin, Eagle Ford, and Haynesville did not have sufficient flared gas to treat the wastewater produced in each respective region and thus would need other energy sources for water and wastewater treatment. Summary The findings indicate that novel approaches to managing existing resources and waste streams might have the potential to improve the environmental footprint and economic productivity of select oil and gas sites.