No abstract

A number of studies have suggested that avian brood size is individually optimized. Yet, optimal reproductive decisions likely vary owing to amongindividual differences in environmental sensitivity. Specifically, 'proactive' individuals who do not track environmental changes may be less able to produce optimal brood sizes than 'reactive' individuals who have more precise local environmental knowledge. To test this, we quantified exploratory behaviour (a proxy for proactivity) in a great tit (Parus major) population, manipulated brood sizes (reduced, control, enlarged) and evaluated whether individuals of dissimilar coping style differed in their level of optimization. If reactive females behaved optimally, any deviation from their original brood size should lower fitness, whereas this should not be the case for proactive females. Reactive females indeed performed best at their natural brood size, whereas proactive females performed best when raising an enlarged brood. These findings imply that proactive females produced sub-optimal brood sizes. We speculate that proactive females might (i) take decisions based on biased perception of their environment, (ii) face energetic constraints in offspring production and/or (iii) be more willing to invest into current reproduction when given the option. Our findings provide experimental evidence for coping style-related differences in optimal reproductive decisions and life-history strategies.

No abstract

The importance of extrapair paternity (EPP) as an aspect of mixed reproductive strategies is currently the focus of many studies. Since females have at least some control over the occurrence of inseminations, they are expected to engage in extrapair copulations only if they benefit, for instance through gaining highquality or compatible genes for their offspring, or insurance against infertility. To distinguish between these benefits, we studied characteristics related to intermale variation in fertilization success as well as differences in fitness between half-siblings in the reed bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus, a socially monogamous passerine with high levels of EPP (50% of young). We found that older males were more successful at siring offspring in other broods and a nonsignificant tendency for them to be less cuckolded in their own broods. The success of older males does not support the fertility insurance hypothesis: a male's sperm storage capacity did not predict his fertilization success, the occurrence of infertile eggs was unrelated to the occurrence of EPP in a nest and older males had more infertile eggs in nests with no EPP. Extrapair young had longer tarsi at fledging than their maternal half-siblings, but we found no other differences between maternal or paternal half-siblings in several presumed quality traits. Owing to the absence of long-term fitness data, we are unable to determine whether the difference in tarsus length is related to a difference in fitness benefits. At this time, we cannot exclude the possibility that females do gain genetic benefits through EPP.

Males of socially monogamous species can increase their siring success via within‐pair and extra‐pair fertilizations. In this study, we focused on the different sources of (co)variation between these siring routes, and asked how each contributes to total siring success. We quantified the fertilization routes to siring success, as well as behaviors that have been hypothesized to affect siring success, over a five‐year period for a wild population of great tits Parus major. We considered siring success and its fertilization routes as “interactive phenotypes” arising from phenotypic contributions of both members of the social pair. We show that siring success is strongly affected by the fecundity of the social (female) partner. We also demonstrate that a strong positive correlation between extra‐pair fertilization success and paternity loss likely constrains the evolution of these two routes. Moreover, we show that more explorative and aggressive males had less extra‐pair fertilizations, whereas more explorative females laid larger clutches. This study thus demonstrates that (co)variation in siring routes is caused by multiple factors not necessarily related to characteristics of males. We thereby highlight the importance of acknowledging the multilevel structure of male fertilization routes when studying the evolution of male mating strategies.