Summary Mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation and mutant bone morphogenetic protein receptor (BMPR)2 are associated with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), an incurable disease characterized by pulmonary arterial (PA) endothelial cell (EC) apoptosis, decreased microvessels and occlusive vascular remodeling. We hypothesized that reduced BMPR2 induces PAEC mitochondrial dysfunction, promoting a pro-inflammatory or pro-apoptotic state. Mice with EC-deletion of BMPR2 develop hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension that, in contrast to non-transgenic littermates, does not reverse upon reoxygenation and is associated with reduced PA microvessels and lung EC p53, PGC1α and TFAM, regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial DNA. Decreasing PAEC BMPR2 by siRNA during reoxygenation represses p53, PGC1α, NRF2, TFAM, mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP and induces mitochondrial DNA deletion and apoptosis. Reducing PAEC BMPR2 in normoxia increases p53, PGC1α, TFAM, mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP production and glycolysis, induces mitochondrial fission, and a pro-inflammatory state. These features are recapitulated in PAEC from PAH patients with mutant BMPR2.

Background We previously reported high-throughput RNA sequencing analyses that identified heightened expression of the chromatin architectural factor High Mobility Group AT-hook 1 (HMGA1) in pulmonary arterial (PA) endothelial cells (ECs) from idiopathic PA hypertension (IPAH) patients compared to controls. Since HMGA1 promotes epithelial to mesenchymal transition in cancer, we hypothesized that increased HMGA1 could induce transition of PAECs to a smooth muscle (SM)-like mesenchymal phenotype (EndMT), explaining both dysregulation of PAEC function and possible cellular contribution to the occlusive remodeling that characterizes advanced IPAH. Methods and Results We documented increased HMGA1 in PAECs cultured from IPAH vs. donor control lungs. Confocal microscopy of lung explants localized the increase in HMGA1 consistently to PA endothelium, and identified many cells double-positive for HMGA1 and smooth muscle 22 alpha (SM22α) in occlusive and plexogenic lesions. Since decreased expression and function of bone morphogenetic protein receptor (BMPR)2 is observed in PAH, we reduced BMPR2 by siRNA in control PAECs and documented an increase in HMGA1 protein. Consistent with transition of PAECs by HMGA1, we detected reduced PECAM-1 (CD31) and increased EndMT markers, αSMA, SM22α, calponin, phospho-vimentin and Slug. The transition was associated with spindle SM-like morphology, and the increase in αSMA was largely reversed by joint knockdown of BMPR2 and HMGA1 or Slug. Pulmonary ECs from mice with EC-specific loss of BMPR2 showed similar gene and protein changes. Conclusions Increased HMGA1 in PAECs resulting from dysfunctional BMPR2 signaling can transition endothelium to SM-like cells associated with PAH.

Rationale: Pulmonary arterial hypertension is characterized by endothelial dysfunction, impaired bone morphogenetic protein receptor 2 (BMPR2) signaling, and increased elastase activity. Synthetic elastase inhibitors reverse experimental pulmonary hypertension but cause hepatotoxicity in clinical studies. The endogenous elastase inhibitor elafin attenuates hypoxic pulmonary hypertension in mice, but its potential to improve endothelial function and BMPR2 signaling, and to reverse severe experimental pulmonary hypertension or vascular pathology in the human disease was unknown.Objectives: To assess elafin-mediated regression of pulmonary vascular pathology in rats and in lung explants from patients with pulmonary hypertension. To determine if elafin amplifies BMPR2 signaling in pulmonary artery endothelial cells and to elucidate the underlying mechanism.Methods: Rats with pulmonary hypertension induced by vascular endothelial growth factor receptor blockade and hypoxia (Sugen/ hypoxia) as well as lung organ cultures from patients with pulmonary hypertension were used to assess elafin-mediated reversibility of pulmonary vascular disease. Pulmonary arterial endothelial cells from patients and control subjects were used to determine the efficacy and mechanism of elafin-mediated BMPR2 signaling. Measurements and Main Results:In Sugen/hypoxia rats, elafin reduced elastase activity and reversed pulmonary hypertension, judged by regression of right ventricular systolic pressure and hypertrophy and pulmonary artery occlusive changes. Elafin improved endothelial function by increasing apelin, a BMPR2 target. Elafin induced apoptosis in human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells and decreased neointimal lesions in lung organ culture. In normal and patient pulmonary artery endothelial cells, elafin promoted angiogenesis by increasing pSMAD-dependent and -independent BMPR2 signaling. This was linked mechanistically to augmented interaction of BMPR2 with caveolin-1 via elafin-mediated stabilization of endothelial surface caveolin-1.Conclusions: Elafin reverses obliterative changes in pulmonary arteries via elastase inhibition and caveolin-1-dependent amplification of BMPR2 signaling.

Rationale: Pulmonary arterial hypertension is characterized by endothelial dysregulation, but global changes in gene expression have not been related to perturbations in function.Objectives: RNA sequencing was used to discriminate changes in transcriptomes of endothelial cells cultured from lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension versus control subjects and to assess the functional significance of major differentially expressed transcripts.Methods: The endothelial transcriptomes from the lungs of seven control subjects and six patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension were analyzed. Differentially expressed genes were related to bone morphogenetic protein type 2 receptor (BMPR2) signaling. Those down-regulated were assessed for function in cultured cells and in a transgenic mouse.Measurements and Main Results: Fold differences in 10 genes were significant (P , 0.05), four increased and six decreased in patients versus control subjects. No patient was mutant for BMPR2. However, knockdown of BMPR2 by siRNA in control pulmonary arterial endothelial cells recapitulated 6 of 10 patient-related gene changes, including decreased collagen IV (COL4A1, COL4A2) and ephrinA1 (EFNA1). Reduction of BMPR2-regulated transcripts was related to decreased b-catenin. Reducing COL4A1, COL4A2, and EFNA1 by siRNA inhibited pulmonary endothelial adhesion, migration, and tube formation. In mice null for the EFNA1 receptor, EphA2, versus control animals, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor blockade and hypoxia caused more severe pulmonary hypertension, judged by elevated right ventricular systolic pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy, and loss of small arteries. Conclusions:The novel relationship between BMPR2 dysfunction and reduced expression of endothelial COL4 and EFNA1 may underlie vulnerability to injury in pulmonary arterial hypertension.