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Article impact statement: Better understanding and interpretation of CITES trade data is required to avoid erroneous conclusions in publications about wildlife trade.

The trade in wildlife and keeping of exotic pets is subject to varying levels of national and international regulation and is a topic often attracting controversy. Reptiles are popular exotic pets and comprise a substantial component of the live animal trade. High mortality of traded animals raises welfare concerns, and also has implications for conservation if collection from the wild is required to meet demand. Mortality of reptiles can occur at any stage of the trade chain from collector to consumer. However, there is limited information on mortality rates of reptiles across trade chains, particularly amongst final consumers in the home. We investigated mortality rates of reptiles amongst consumers using a specialised technique for asking sensitive questions, additive Randomised Response Technique (aRRT), as well as direct questioning (DQ). Overall, 3.6% of snakes, chelonians and lizards died within one year of acquisition. Boas and pythons had the lowest reported mortality rates of 1.9% and chameleons had the highest at 28.2%. More than 97% of snakes, 87% of lizards and 69% of chelonians acquired by respondents over five years were reported to be captive bred and results suggest that mortality rates may be lowest for captive bred individuals. Estimates of mortality from aRRT and DQ did not differ significantly which is in line with our findings that respondents did not find questions about reptile mortality to be sensitive. This research suggests that captive reptile mortality in the home is rather low, and identifies those taxa where further effort could be made to reduce mortality rates.

ABSTRACT. Much of the global wildlife trade is sourced from biodiversity-rich developing countries. These often have high levels of poverty and habitat loss, particularly in rural areas where many depend on natural resources. However, wildlife collection may incentivize local people to conserve habitats that support their livelihoods. Here we examined the contribution of the commercial collection of live animals to rural livelihoods in Madagascar, one of the world's most important biodiversity hotspots. Using questionnaires, we investigated the prevalence, profitability relative to other livelihood activities, and local importance of the trade, and its capacity to provide incentives for conservation. Thirteen percent of households were engaged in live animal collection in the study area (~5% trapped reptiles and amphibians and the remainder trapped invertebrates). This formed part of a diverse livelihood strategy, and was more profitable than other activities (in terms of returns per unit of effort), with median earnings of ~US$100 per season (~25% of Gross National Income per year). However, trapping was part-time, usually undertaken by poorer members of the community, and often perceived as opportunistic, risky, and financially unreliable. Further, trappers and nontrappers held similar perceptions regarding conservation, suggesting wildlife trade currently does not incentivize enhanced stewardship of traded species and their habitats. Our study brings together a range of methodologies to present the most comprehensive insights into livelihoods and conservation in poor rural communities involved in the commercial collection of live animals to supply international trade. This improved understanding of the wider socioeconomic dimensions of wildlife trade can inform policy and management interventions for both the threats and opportunities associated with global trade in biodiversity both in Madagascar and more generally.

Flying foxes of the genus Pteropus are predominantly island taxa, with high levels of endemism, and face high risks of extinction. Their ecological and economic importance in island ecosystems has been widely recognized. Here we investigate the population size and conservation status of the Vulnerable Pteropus voeltzkowi, endemic to the western Indian Ocean island of Pemba, Tanzania. Direct counts and patch counts were used to determine abundance of flying foxes at roost sites, supplemented with evening dispersal counts, which were conducted to test accuracy of counting techniques under varying conditions of visibility. We estimate that the population size is now a minimum of 18,200–22,100, thus validating reports of annual increases by in-country monitoring teams since the last documented population survey of 4,600–5,500 bats in 1995. Taking into account differences in the counting methodologies for roosting bats we estimate that the population size could be as high as 35,600 individuals. We identified 44 occupied roosting sites, with just four of these supporting up to 87% of the population. Roost disturbance represents a continuing threat to this species and was found to influence roost occupancy and colony size. The implications of the population increase for the local human community are discussed and recommendations provided for continued monitoring and future management of this species on Pemba Island