and expiration-can be as high as 60-70% (Wallace, Willis, Nwaze, & Dieng, 2017; Zaffran et al., 2013). Although vaccine coolers are designed to keep vaccines cold, a poorly designed apparatus can result in accidental freezing of vaccines so that sub-potent vaccines can sometimes be administered (Chen, & Kristensen, 2009). A 2007 study found that in vaccine reports tracked longitudinally, 75-100% of vaccines were exposed to freezing temperatures; the authors recommend improved cold-chain transport equipment as a solution (Matthias, Robertson, Garrison, Newland, & Nelson, 2007). Vaccine freezing or overheating issues are not relegated solely to older studies or developing nations. The 2013-2014 H1N1pdm09 virus outbreak in the United States can likely be attributed to vaccine shipments being exposed to high temperatures (Caspard, Coelingh, Mallory, & Ambrose, 2016). The cost of most vaccines today ranges from $3.50-$7.50 per administration (Gates, 2012), so wastage results in a considerable economic loss. Importantly, when vaccines lose potency, there is a loss of confidence in vaccine therapy (Larson, Cooper, Eskola, Katz, & Ratzan, 2011). Thus, reducing vaccine wastage while increasing potency will provide more effective immunization in the rural, developing world at a reduced cost per dose. One way to address aspects of the wastage issue is the development of small coolers capable of transporting vaccines, maintained in the proper temperature range, from the regional health center to the distant client; this trip is termed the end stage of the cold chain. Coolers employing phase change materials including ice are capable of maintaining the desired temperature range for a period, but vaccines in such coolers are sometimes subject to overheating or freezing because of the lack of temperature regulation.

Background Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a fat tissue found in most mammals that helps regulate energy balance and core body temperature through a sympathetic process known as non-shivering thermogenesis. BAT activity is commonly detected and quantified in [18F]FDG positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) scans, and radiotracer uptake in BAT during adrenergic stimulation is often used as a surrogate measure for identifying thermogenic activity in the tissue. BAT thermogenesis is believed to be contingent upon the expression of the protein UCP1, but conflicting results have been reported in the literature concerning [18F]FDG uptake within BAT of mice with and without UCP1. Differences in animal handling techniques such as feeding status, type of anesthetic, type of BAT stimulation, and estrogen levels were identified as possible confounding variables for [18F]FDG uptake. In this study, we aimed to assess differences in BAT [18F]FDG uptake between wild-type and UCP1-knockout mice using a protocol that minimizes possible variations in BAT stimulation caused by different stress responses to mouse handling. Results [18F]FDG PET/CT scans were run on mice that were anesthetized with pentobarbital after stimulation of non-shivering thermogenesis by norepinephrine. While in wild-type mice [18F]FDG uptake in BAT increased significantly with norepinephrine stimulation of BAT, there was no consistent change in [18F]FDG uptake in BAT of mice lacking UCP1. Conclusions [18F]FDG uptake within adrenergically stimulated BAT of wild-type and UCP1-knockout mice can significantly vary such that an [18F]FDG uptake threshold cannot be used to differentiate wild-type from UCP1-knockout mice. However, while an increase in BAT [18F]FDG uptake during adrenergic stimulation is consistently observed in wild-type mice, in UCP1-knockout mice [18F]FDG uptake in BAT seems to be independent of β3-adrenergic stimulation of non-shivering thermogenesis.

Background Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a fat tissue found in most mammals that helps regulate energy balance and core body temperature through a sympathetic process known as non-shivering thermogenesis. BAT activity is commonly detected and quantified in [18F]FDG positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) scans, and radiotracer uptake in BAT during adrenergic stimulation is often used as a surrogate measure for identifying thermogenic activity in the tissue. BAT thermogenesis is believed to be contingent upon the expression of the protein UCP1, but conflicting results have been reported in the literature concerning [18F]FDG uptake within BAT of mice with and without UCP1. Differences in animal handling techniques such as feeding status, type of anesthetic, type of BAT stimulation, and estrogen levels were identified as possible confounding variables for [18F]FDG uptake. In this study, we aimed to assess differences in BAT [18F]FDG uptake between wildtype and UCP1-knockout mice using a protocol that minimizes possible variations in BAT stimulation caused by different stress responses to mouse handling.Results [18F]FDG PET/CT scans were ran on mice that were anesthetized with pentobarbital after stimulation of non-shivering thermogenesis by norepinephrine. While in wild type mice [18F]FDG uptake in BAT increased significantly with norepinephrine stimulation of BAT, there was no consistent change in [18F]FDG uptake in BAT of mice lacking UCP1. Conclusions [18F]FDG uptake within adrenergically stimulated BAT of wildtype and UCP1-knockout mice can significantly vary such that an [18F]FDG uptake threshold cannot be used to differentiate wildtype from UCP1-knockout mice. However, while an increase in BAT [18F]FDG uptake during adrenergic stimulation is consistently observed in wild type mice, in UCP1-knockout mice [18F]FDG uptake in BAT seems to be is independent of β3 adrenergic stimulation of non-shivering thermogenesis.

BackgroundBrown adipose tissue (BAT) is a fat tissue found in most mammals that helps regulate energy balance and core body temperature through a sympathetic process known as non-shivering thermogenesis. BAT activity is commonly detected and quantified in 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) scans, and radiotracer uptake in BAT during adrenergic stimulation is often used as a surrogate measure for identifying thermogenic activity in the tissue. BAT thermogenesis is believed to be contingent upon the expression of the protein UCP1, but conflicting results have been reported in the literature concerning 18F-FDG uptake within BAT of mice with and without UCP1. Differences in animal handling techniques such as feeding status, type of anesthetic, type of BAT stimulation, and estrogen levels were identified as possible confounding variables for 18F-FDG uptake. In this study, we aimed to assess differences in BAT 18F-FDG uptake between wildtype and UCP1-knockout mice using a protocol that minimizes possible variations in BAT stimulation caused by different stress responses to mouse handling.Results18F-FDG PET/CT scans were ran on mice that were anesthetized with pentobarbital after stimulation of non-shivering thermogenesis by norepinephrine. While in wild type mice 18F-FDG uptake in BAT increased significantly with norepinephrine stimulation of BAT, there was no consistent change in 18F-FDG uptake in BAT of mice lacking UCP1. Conclusions18F-FDG uptake within adrenergically stimulated BAT of wildtype and UCP1-knockout mice can significantly vary such that an 18F-FDG uptake threshold cannot be used to differentiate wildtype from UCP1-knockout mice. However, while an increase in BAT 18F-FDG uptake during adrenergic stimulation is consistently observed in wild type mice, in UCP1-knockout mice 18F-FDG uptake in BAT seems to be is independent of β3 adrenergic stimulation of non-shivering thermogenesis.