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We analyse inter-regional research collaboration as measured by scientific publications and patents with multiple addresses, covering 1316 NUTS3 regions in 29 European countries. The estimates of gravity equations show the effects of geographical and institutional distance on research collaboration. We also find evidence for the existence of elite structures between excellence regions and between capital regions. The results suggest that current EU science policy to stimulate research collaboration is legitimate, but doubt the compatibility between EU science policy and EU cohesion policy. JEL Classification R10 · R12

a b s t r a c tWe propose a research program to analyse spatial aspects of the science system. First, we provide a review of scientometric studies that already explicitly take the spatial dimension into account. The review includes studies on (i) the spatial distribution of research and citations, (ii) the existence of spatial biases in collaboration, citations and mobility, and (iii) the citation impact of national versus international collaborations. Then, we address a number of methodological issues in dealing with space in scientometrics. Finally, to integrate spatial and non-spatial approaches, we propose an analytical framework based on the concept of proximity. A proximity approach allows for combining hypotheses from different theoretical perspectives into a single framework.

IntroductionFollowing the start of the World Health Organization (WHO) Programme for International Drug Monitoring (PIDM) by 10 member countries in 1968, it took another 24 years for the first two African countries to join in 1992, by which time the number of member countries in the PIDM had grown to 33. Whilst pharmacovigilance (PV), including the submission of individual case safety reports (ICSR) to VigiBase®, the WHO global ICSR database, is growing in Africa, no data have been published on the growth of ICSR reporting from Africa and how the features of ICSRs from Africa compare with the rest of the world (RoW).ObjectiveThe objective of this paper was to provide an overview of the growth of national PV centres in Africa, the reporting of ICSRs by African countries, and the features of ICSRs from Africa, and to compare ICSRs from Africa with the RoW.MethodsThe search and analysis interface of VigiBase®—VigiLyze®—was used to characterise ICSRs submitted by African countries and the RoW. The distribution of ICSRs by African countries was listed and characterised by anatomic therapeutic chemical (ATC) code, Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities (MedDRA®) system organ class (SOC) classification, and patient age and sex. The case-defining features of ICSRs between Africa and the RoW were also compared.ResultsThe number of African countries in the PIDM increased from 2 in 1992 to 35 at the end of September 2015, and African PIDM members have cumulatively submitted 103,499 ICSRs (0.88 % of global ICSRs) to VigiBase®. The main class of products in African ICSRs are nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (14.04 %), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (9.09 %), antivirals for the treatment of HIV infections (5.50 %), combinations of sulfonamides and trimethoprim (2.98 %) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (2.42 %). The main product classes implicated in ICSRs from the RoW are tumour necrosis factor-α (TNFα) inhibitors (5.29 %), topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory preparations (2.26 %), selective immunosuppressants (2.08 %), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (2.04 %) and HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (1.85 %). The main SOCs reported from Africa versus the RoW include skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders (31.14 % vs. 19.58 %), general disorders and administration site conditions (20.91 % vs. 30.49 %) and nervous system disorders (17.48 % vs. 19.13 %). The 18–44 years age group dominated ICSRs from Africa, while the 45–64 years age group dominated the RoW. Identical proportions of females (57 % Africa and the RoW) and males (37 % Africa and the RoW) were represented.ConclusionsAs at the end of September 2015, 35 of 54 African countries were Full Member countries of the PIDM. Although the number of ICSRs from Africa has increased substantially, ICSRs from Africa still make up <1 % of the global total in VigiBase®. The features of ICSRs from Africa differ to those from the RoW in relation to the classes of products as well as age group of patients affected. Th...