Two studies investigated whether benevolent sexism is differentially applied based on a woman’s race. Study 1 demonstrated that participants expressed more benevolent sexism to White females than Black females when given no other information besides race. Study 2 introduced positive (chaste) and negative (promiscuous) sexually subtyped behaviors in addition to female race. Under these conditions, participants directed more benevolent sexism at chaste Black women rather than chaste White women, consistent with shifting standards theory. Despite receiving more benevolent sexism, chaste Black women did not receive more positive evaluations overall. Across both studies, expressions of hostile sexism did not differ by race. Results suggest that race may function as a subtype to elicit benevolent sexism contingent on behavior. Black women who follow traditional gender norms may be overcompensated for their conformity with benevolent sexism, but not receive more positive benefits.

Although studies often find racial disparities in policing outcomes, less is known about how suspect race biases police interactions as they unfold. This study examines what is differentially occurring during police-suspect interactions for White, Black, and Latino suspects across time. It is hypothesized that racial bias may be more evident earlier in interactions, when less information about the situation is available. One hundred thirty-nine (62 White, 42 Black, and 35 Latino) use-of-force case files and associated written narratives from a medium to large size urban police department in the United States were analyzed. Trained coders broke down the interaction narratives into discrete "sequences," or dyadic action-reaction steps involving a suspect action (level of resistance) and an officer response (level of force). A linear mixed-effects model was run on amount of police use of force by suspect race and time, with suspect resistance and suspect actions toward third-party/self as controls. Results demonstrated that Black and Latino suspects receive more force in the beginning stages of the interaction, whereas Whites escalated in level of force faster after initial levels. By breaking down police-suspect interactions into discrete sequences, the current study reveals a better understanding of when bias originates in police use of force and informs how to focus policing interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record

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The shootings of Amadou Diallo, Michael Brown, and other unarmed African Americans by police officers propelled social psychological research regarding the influence of racial stereotypes on decisions to shoot. Using the full-cycle model as a frame, we contextualize the shootings of unarmed minorities and the empirical research on how racial stereotypes affect perception and behavior. Focusing on the "shooter bias" phenomenon, we detail what social psychological research knows about decisions to shoot in nonpolice samples and what needs further empirical research. We highlight the complexity and dynamic nature of shooting decisions and the need for more translational research with police officers to fully understand the potential effect. Next, we examine empirical interventions that aim to reduce the applicability of activated stereotypes on shooting behavior. Finally, we finish with a discussion of the practical implications that this research has for police, training, and community relations.

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