The invisibility of men and boys in scholarly discussions of the global sex trade was analyzed through a sample of 166 recent articles published in social science journals. Most failed to acknowledge the existence of male sex workers at all. When male sex workers were discussed, they were assigned considerably more agency than female sex workers, the chief danger ascribed to them was HIV rather than violence, and the question of their sexual orientation was always addressed, whereas female sex workers were always assumed heterosexual. The results are discussed in the context of world system theory, Orientalism, and heteronormativity.

Although American television programs targeted at children and adolescents posit universal heterosexuality and never openly allude to LGBT persons, a content analysis of 102 episodes of 25 contemporary children's programs revealed many examples of resistance to the heteronormative ideology: intimate same-sex friendships; inclusive statements or stage business; scenes that hint at the existence of same-sex desire; gender-transgressive or otherwise gay-stereotyped characters; and jokes and references that require a knowledge of gay culture. The impact of this resistance on viewers is analyzed through fan fiction and artwork, and potential explanations are examined.

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The author analyzes animated television programs from the 1950s Ruf and Reddy to the present for codes suggesting same-sex desire, identity, and relationships. Animated sitcoms such as The Simpsons and Daria tend to acknowledge gay and lesbian identities, while presenting same-sex desire as ludicrous or beyond the realm of possibility. Conversely, surreal cartoons such as Rocko's Modern Life and Spongebob Squarepants tend to ignore gay and lesbian identities but present same-sex desire as ordinary and even vital and worthwhile. One explanation for the disjunction may be found in the heterosexualization of the cultural texts.