The synthesis of bioactive vitamin D requires hydroxylation at the 1␣ and 25 positions by cytochrome P450 enzymes in the kidney and liver, respectively. The mitochondrial enzyme CYP27B1 catalyzes 1␣-hydroxylation in the kidney but the identity of the hepatic 25-hydroxylase has remained unclear for >30 years. We previously identified the microsomal CYP2R1 protein as a potential candidate for the liver vitamin D 25-hydroxylase based on the enzyme's biochemical properties, conservation, and expression pattern. Here, we report a molecular analysis of a patient with low circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and classic symptoms of vitamin D deficiency. This individual was found to be homozygous for a transition mutation in exon 2 of the CYP2R1 gene on chromosome 11p15.2. The inherited mutation caused the substitution of a proline for an evolutionarily conserved leucine at amino acid 99 in the CYP2R1 protein and eliminated vitamin D 25-hydroxylase enzyme activity. These data identify CYP2R1 as a biologically relevant vitamin D 25-hydroxylase and reveal the molecular basis of a human genetic disease, selective 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency.T he metabolic pathway leading to the synthesis of active vitamin D involves three reactions that occur in different tissues (1). The pathway is initiated in the skin with the UV light-mediated cleavage of 5,7,-cholestadien-3␤-ol to produce the secosteroid (3␤,5Z,7E)-9,10-secocholesta-5,7,10(19)-trien-3-ol (vitamin D 3 ). The second step occurs in the liver and is catalyzed by a cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme that hydroxylates carbon 25, producing the intermediate 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 , which is the major circulatory form of the vitamin. The third and final step takes place in the kidney and involves 1␣-hydroxylation by another CYP, producing 1␣,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 . This product is a potent ligand of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and mediates most of the physiological actions of the vitamin (1).Although the chemical and enzymatic steps in the vitamin D 3 biosynthetic pathway have been known for 30 years (1), the enzyme catalyzing the 25-hydroxylation step in the liver has never been identified. At least six CYPs can catalyze this reaction in vitro, including CYP2C11, CYP2D25, CYP3A4, CYP2J1, CYP27A1, and CYP2R1 (2-4). Of these CYPs, the two most viable candidates for the vitamin D 25-hydroxylase are CYP27A1 and CYP2R1 (2). Both enzymes are expressed in the liver and are conserved among species known to have an active vitamin D signaling pathway. However, mutations in the human and mouse genes encoding the mitochondrial CYP27A1 protein impair bile acid synthesis, but have no consequences for vitamin D metabolism (5-9). It is thus not clear whether the two vitamin D 3 25-hydroxylases represent an example of biological redundancy in an important biosynthetic pathway or whether CYP2R1 alone or some unidentified enzyme fulfills this essential role.In contrast to the uncertainty surrounding vitamin D 3 25-hydroxylase, the renal enzyme responsible for 1␣-hydroxylation of the vitamin...

SUMMARY Cellular-state information between generations of developing cells may be propagated via regulatory regions. We report consistent patterns of gain and loss of DNase I-hypersensitive sites (DHSs) as cells progress from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to terminal fates. DHS patterns alone convey rich information about cell fate and lineage relationships distinct from information conveyed by gene expression. Developing cells share a proportion of their DHS landscapes with ESCs; that proportion decreases continuously in each cell type as differentiation progresses, providing a quantitative benchmark of developmental maturity. Developmentally stable DHSs densely encode binding sites for transcription factors involved in autoregulatory feedback circuits. In contrast to normal cells, cancer cells extensively reactivate silenced ESC DHSs and those from developmental programs external to the cell lineage from which the malignancy derives. Our results point to changes in regulatory DNA landscapes as quantitative indicators of cell-fate transitions, lineage relationships, and dysfunction.