There is considerable interest in the production of emulsions and nanoemulsions using low-energy methods due to the fact they are simple to implement and no expensive equipment is required. In this review, the principles of isothermal (spontaneous emulsification and emulsion phase inversion) and thermal (phase inversion temperature) lowenergy methods for nanoemulsion production are presented. The major factors influencing nanoemulsion formation using low-energy methods and food-grade components are reviewed: preparation conditions, oil type, surfactant type, surfactant-to-oil ratio, and cosolvent or cosurfactant addition. The advantages and disadvantages of different low-energy and high-energy methods for fabricating nanoemulsions are highlighted, and potential applications for these techniques are discussed.

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Nanoemulsions have considerable potential for encapsulating and delivering ω-3 fatty acids, but they are typically fabricated from synthetic surfactants. This study shows that fish oil-in-water nanoemulsions can be formed from sunflower phospholipids, which have advantages for food applications because they have low allergenicity and do not come from genetically modified organisms. Nanoemulsions containing small droplets (d<150 nm) could be produced using microfluidization, by optimizing phospholipid type and concentration, with the smallest droplets being formed at high phosphatidylcholine levels and at surfactant-to-oil ratios exceeding unity. The physical stability of the nanoemulsions was mainly attributed to electrostatic repulsion, with droplet aggregation occurring at low pH values (low charge magnitude) and at high ionic strengths (electrostatic screening). These results suggest that sunflower phospholipids may be a viable natural emulsifier to deliver ω-3 fatty acids into food and beverage products.

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