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Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were fed a diet containing a mixture of 11 structurally diverse brominated flame retardants (BFRs) at nominal concentrations of either 1 or 100 nmol/g for up to 42 d, followed by an elimination period of 14 d. Uptake rates and elimination constants for five of the BFRs were calculated from measurements of their concentrations in the male fish during the exposure and elimination phases. Observed uptake efficiencies were highest for 2,4,4'-tribromodiphenyl ether (BDE 28) and 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2-dibromoethyl)cyclohexane (TBECH) and were lowest for decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209). Estimated half-lives for TBECH and 2,4,6-tribromophenol were short (<2 d). Four BFR metabolites were identified in the fish: 2,2',3,4',5',6-Hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 149), 2,2',4,4',5,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 154), 2,4,6-tribromoanisole, and 1,2,4,5-hexabromobenzene. These metabolites were still present in the zebrafish after the 14-d elimination period. No relationship between the BFR concentrations in the zebrafish and their log octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) values was found. Generally, low tendencies to bioaccumulate were observed for perbrominated and hydroxylated compounds. The observed accumulation of BFR metabolites in fish, however, shows that low concentration of a BFR does not provide, in isolation, a sound indication that the BFR poses low risks.

The brominated flame retardants (BFRs), pentabromotoluene (PBT), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB) and hexabromobenzene (HBB), exhibit physical-chemical properties similar to other persistent organic pollutants, and have been in use as flame retardants for several decades. Data on these BFRs in diverse environmental samples can be found in studies from the 1970s and 1980s, as well as in recent years, though very little in the years in between. Due to a lack of data, the cause for the apparent re-emergence of these BFRs in recent studies is unclear, and could reflect changes in production volumes, accumulation of transformation products from BFR precursors, improved analytical techniques or simply a re-emergence in concern. Very little data are available on their environmentally relevant partitioning properties, which could help to explain the occurrence and fate of these BFRs. In this study we analysed for the presence of HBB, PBT, and PBEB in diverse environmental samples from potential Norwegian BFR source zones. Additionally, environmental partitioning properties of these BFRs as well as brominated benzenes were estimated and validated using experimental data for brominated benzenes. Of the three BFRs, HBB was identified in detectable quantities at most source zones, PBEB only near a metal recycling factory, and PBT only in a few additional locations from where PBEB was detected. Data from this study show that HBB is likely widely distributed, as verified both by chemical analysis and estimated properties. Measured HBB levels in wastewater treatment plants indicate that the treatment practices used in the study locations are not effective at lowering HBB levels, perhaps due to association with low density suspended solids (e.g. microplastics).

Over the past 10 years, a number of safety measures for reducing firefighters' exposure to combustion particles have been introduced in Sweden. The most important measure was the reduction in the time firefighters wear suits and handle contaminated equipment after turn-outs involving smoke diving. This study was divided into two parts, those being to investigate the level of protection obtained by multiple garment layers and to assess exposure during a standardized smoke diving exercise. First, realistic work protection factors (WPFs) were calculated by comparing air concentrations of the full suite of gaseous and particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) inside and outside structural ensembles, including jacket and thick base layer, during a tough fire extinguishing exercise using wood as the fuel. Second, during a standardized smoke diving exercise, exposure was assessed by measuring PAH skin deposition and levels of eight urinary PAH metabolites in 20 volunteer student firefighters before and after the exercise. The average WPF for the sum of 22 PAHs was 146 ± 33 suggesting a relatively high protective capacity but also indicating a substantial enrichment of contaminants with a risk of prolonged dermal exposure. Accordingly, in the second exercise, the median levels of skin-deposited Σ14-PAHs and urinary 1-hydroxypyrene significantly increased 5-fold (21 to 99 ng/wipe) and 8-fold (0.14 to 1.1 µmol mol-1 creatinine), respectively, post exposure. Among the PAH metabolites investigated, 1-hydroxypyrene proved to be the most useful indicator of exposure, with significantly elevated urinary levels at both 6 h and 20 h after the exercise and with the strongest correlation to dermal exposure. Metabolites from two-ring and three-ring PAHs were eliminated faster while levels of 3-hydroxy-benzo[a]pyrene did not meet the detection criteria. The results from correlation studies indicated that dermal uptake was a major route of exposure in accordance with previous findings. To summarize, this study shows that some of the newly adopted protective measures were correctly implemented, and should continue to be followed and be more widely adopted.