The binding of Abs to microbial surfaces followed by complement activation constitutes an important line of defense against infections. In this study, we have investigated the relationship between complement activation and the binding of human IgM Abs to surfaces with different curvatures. IgM Abs to dextran were shown to activate complement potently on dextran-coated particles having a diameter around 250 nm, whereas larger (600 nm) particles were less potent activators. This selectivity regarding particle dimension was also found for complement activation by colloidal substances of microbial origin. Peptidoglycan (PGN) is the major chemical component in the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. Fragments of purified PGN with sizes of ∼100 nm promoted complement activation effectively through the classical pathway. By contrast, larger or smaller fragments of PGN did not activate complement strongly. A careful analysis of PGN fragments released during planctonic growth of Staphylococcus aureus showed that these include curvatures that would permit strong IgM-mediated complement activation, whereas the curvature of intact cells would be less effective for such activation. Consistently, we found that the suspended PGN fragments were strong activators of complement through the classical pathway. We suggest that these fragments act as decoy targets for complement activation, providing protection for S. aureus against the host immune response to infection.

It is of high clinical relevance in bone tissue engineering that scaffolds promote a high seeding efficiency of cells capable of osteogenic differentiation, such as human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). We evaluated the effects of a novel polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold on hMSC seeding efficiency, proliferation, distribution and differentiation. Porous PCL meshes prepared by fused deposition modeling (FDM) were embedded in matrix of hyaluronic acid, methylated collagen and terpolymer via polyelectrolyte complex coacervation. Scaffolds were cultured statically and dynamically in osteogenic stimulation medium for up to 28 days. Compared to naked PCL scaffolds, embedded scaffolds provided a higher cell seeding efficiency (t-test, P<0.05), a more homogeneous cell distribution and more osteogenically differentiated cells, verified by a more pronounced gene expression of the bone markers alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, bone sialoprotein I and bone sialoprotein II. Dynamic culture resulted in higher amounts of DNA (day 14 and day 21) and calcium (day 21 and day 28), compared to static culture. Dynamic culture and the embedding synergistically enhanced the calcium deposition of hMSC on day 21 and day 28. This in vitro study provides evidence that hybrid scaffolds made from natural and synthetic polymers improve cellular seeding efficiency, proliferation, distribution and osteogenic differentiation.

The creation of complex tissues and organs is the ultimate goal in tissue engineering. Engineered morphogenesis necessitates spatially controlled development of multiple cell types within a scaffold implant. We present a novel method to achieve this by adhering nanoparticles containing different small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) into nanostructured scaffolds. This allows spatial retention of the RNAs within nanopores until their cellular delivery. The released siRNAs were capable of gene silencing BCL2L2 and TRIB2, in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), enhancing osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation, respectively. This approach for enhancing a single type of differentiation is immediately applicable to all areas of tissue engineering. Different nanoparticles localized to spatially distinct locations within a single implant allowed two different tissue types to develop in controllable areas of an implant. As a consequence of this, we predict that complex tissues and organs can be engineered by the in situ development of multiple cell types guided by spatially restricted nanoparticles.

Electrospinning has been widely applied for tissue engineering due to its versatility of fabricating extracellular matrix (ECM) mimicking fibrillar scaffolds. Yet there are still challenges such as that these two-dimensional (2D) tightly packed, hydrophobic fibers often hinder cell infiltration and cell-scaffold integration. In this study, polycaprolactone (PCL) was electrospun into a grounded coagulation bath collector, resulting in 3D coiled microfibers with in situ surface functionalization with hydrophilic, catecholic polydopamine (pDA). The 3D scaffolds showed biocompatibility and were well-integrated with human bone marrow derived human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), with significantly higher cell penetration depth compared to that of the 2D PCL microfibers from traditional electrospinning. Further differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) into fibroblast phenotype in vitro indicates that, compared to the stiff, tightly packed, 2D scaffolds which aggravated myofibroblasts related activities, such as upregulated gene and protein expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), 3D scaffolds induced milder myofibroblastic differentiation. The flexible 3D fibers further allowed contraction with the well-integrated, mechanically active myofibroblasts, monitored under live-cell imaging, whereas the stiff 2D scaffolds restricted that.

A porcine calvaria defect study was carried out to investigate the bone repair potential of three-dimensional (3D)-printed poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) scaffolds embedded with nanoporous PCL. A microscopic grid network was created by rapid prototyping making a 3D-fused deposition model (FDM-PCL). Afterward, the FDM-PCL scaffolds were infused with a mixture of PCL, water, and 1,4-dioxane and underwent a thermal-induced phase separation (TIPS) followed by lyophilization. The TIPS process lead to a nanoporous structure shielded by the printed microstructure (NSP-PCL). Sixteen Landrace pigs were divided into two groups with 8 and 12 weeks follow-up, respectively. A total of six nonpenetrating holes were drilled in the calvaria of each animal. The size of the cylindrical defects was h 10 mm and Ø 10 mm. The defects were distributed randomly using following groups: (a) NSP-PCL scaffold, (b) FDM-PCL scaffold, (c) autograft, (d) empty defect, (a1) NSP-PCL scaffold + autologous mononuclear cells, and (a2) NSP-PCL scaffold + bone morphogenetic protein 2. Bone volume to total volume was analyzed using microcomputed tomography (µCT) and histomorphometry. The µCT and histological data showed significantly less bone formation in the NSP-PCL scaffolds in all three variations after both 8 and 12 weeks compared to all other groups. The positive autograft control had significantly higher new bone formation compared to all other groups except the FDM-PCL when analyzed using histomorphometry. The NSP-PCL scaffolds were heavily infiltrated with foreign body giant cells suggesting an inflammatory response and perhaps active resorption of the scaffold material. The unmodified FDM-PCL scaffold showed good osteoconductivity and osseointegration after both 8 and 12 weeks.