The spatial locations of food retailers are considered to be an influential aspect of population consumption patterns. Such contextual relationships are often related to socioeconomic deprivation, with disparities in accessibility having important implications. This study used Geographic Information Systems and an Enhanced Two-Step Floating Catchment Area model of spatial accessibility to further understand such relationships within urban areas of New Zealand. Findings, while mixed, indicate that there is generally increased accessibility to all food retailers in highly deprived areas. Understanding these socio-spatial relationships in local environments has important implications for policy initiatives, health outcomes and sustainable development.food retailer, geographic information system, socio-economic deprivation, spatial accessibility

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has asked unprecedented questions of governments around the world. Policy responses have disrupted usual patterns of movement in society, locally and globally, with resultant impacts on national economies and human well-being. These interventions have primarily centred on enforcing lockdowns and introducing social distancing recommendations, leading to questions of trust and competency around the role of institutions and the administrative apparatus of state. This study demonstrates the unequal societal impacts in population movement during a national ‘lockdown’.MethodsWe use nationwide mobile phone movement data to quantify the effect of an enforced lockdown on population mobility by neighbourhood deprivation using an ecological study design. We then derive a mobility index using anonymised aggregated population counts for each neighbourhood (2253 Census Statistical Areas; mean population n=2086) of national hourly mobile phone location data (7.45 million records, 1 March 2020–20 July 2020) for New Zealand (NZ).ResultsCurtailing movement has highlighted and exacerbated underlying social and spatial inequalities. Our analysis reveals the unequal movements during ‘lockdown’ by neighbourhood socioeconomic status in NZ.ConclusionIn understanding inequalities in neighbourhood movements, we are contributing critical new evidence to the policy debate about the impact(s) and efficacy of national, regional or local lockdowns which have sparked such controversy.

Background Accounting for the co-occurrence of multiple environmental influences is a more accurate reflection of population exposure than considering isolated influences, aiding in understanding the complex interactions between environments, behaviour and health. This study examines how environmental ‘goods’ such as green spaces and environmental ‘bads’ such as alcohol outlets co-occur to develop a nationwide area-level healthy location index (HLI) for New Zealand. Methods Nationwide data were collected, processed, and geocoded on a comprehensive range of environmental exposures. Health-constraining ‘bads’ were represented by: (i) fast-food outlets, (ii) takeaway outlets, (iii) dairy outlets and convenience stores, (iv) alcohol outlets, (v) and gaming venues. Health-promoting ‘goods’ were represented by: (i) green spaces, (ii) blue spaces, (iii) physical activity facilities, (iv) fruit and vegetable outlets, and (v) supermarkets. The HLI was developed based on ranked access to environmental domains. The HLI was then used to investigate socio-spatial patterning by area-level deprivation and rural/urban classification. Results Results showed environmental ‘goods’ and ‘bads’ co-occurred together and were patterned by area-level deprivation. The novel HLI shows that the most deprived areas of New Zealand often have the most environmental ‘bads’ and less access to environmental ‘goods’. Conclusions The index, that is now publicly available, is able to capture both inter-regional and local variations in accessibility to health-promoting and health-constraining environments and their combination. Results in this study further reinforce the need to embrace the multidimensional nature of neighbourhood and place not only when designing health-promoting places, but also when studying the effect of existing built environments on population health.

COVID-19 can affect the entire population, but it poses an increased risk for particular population groups. Socioeconomic and demographic factors, as well as long-term health conditions, can make populations vulnerable to adverse health outcomes and mortality related to COVID-19. This study uses geospatial methods to visualise metrics of vulnerability to COVID-19 in New Zealand. Based on Ministry of Health guidelines, nationwide data on risk factors included age, ethnicity, population density, socioeconomic deprivation, smoking, long-term health conditions (cancer, cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, renal conditions, and respiratory illnesses), and health service awareness. Data were sourced from the Census (2018), the New Zealand Deprivation Index (NZDep2018), and the National Minimum Dataset (2011Dataset ( -2016. Factor analysis and bivariate mapping were used to identify areas of high vulnerability. Results demonstrate the unequal social and spatial vulnerabilities to COVID-19 across New Zealand. While some major cities were highlighted many areas also occurred outside of the major cities in smaller communities, which also typically have less access to healthcare and fewer resources. This study has generated data that may help mitigate potential inequality in our response to the COVID-19 pandemic, or indeed for future pandemics.

No abstract