People often think, feel, and behave metaphorically according to conceptual metaphor theory. There are normative sources of support for this theory, but individual differences have received scant attention. This is surprising because people are likely to differ in the frequency with which they use metaphors and, therefore, the frequency with which they experience the costs and benefits of metaphoric thinking. To investigate these ideas, a 5-study program of research (total N = 532) was conducted. Study 1 developed and validated a Metaphor Usage Measure (MUM), finding that people were fairly consistent in their tendencies toward literal thought and language on the one hand versus metaphoric thought and language on the other. These differences were, in turn, consequential. Although metaphor usage predicted susceptibility to metaphor transfer effects (Studies 2 and 3), it was also linked to higher levels of emotional understanding (Studies 4 and 5). The findings provide support for several key premises of conceptual metaphor theory in the context of a new measure that can be used to track the consequences of metaphoric thinking.

Background A number of studies reports reduced hippocampal volume in individuals who engage in problematic alcohol use. However, the magnitude of the difference in hippocampal volume between individuals with v. without problematic alcohol use has varied widely, and there have been null findings. Moreover, the studies comprise diverse alcohol use constructs and samples, including clinically significant alcohol use disorders and subclinical but problematic alcohol use (e.g. binge drinking), adults and adolescents, and males and females. Methods We conducted the first quantitative synthesis of the published empirical research on associations between problematic alcohol use and hippocampal volume. In total, 23 studies were identified and selected for inclusion in the meta-analysis; effects sizes were aggregated using a random-effects model. Results Problematic alcohol use was associated with significantly smaller hippocampal volume (d = −0.53). Moderator analyses indicated that effects were stronger for clinically significant v. subclinical alcohol use and among adults relative to adolescents; effects did not differ among males and females. Conclusions Problematic alcohol use is associated with reduced hippocampal volume. The moderate overall effect size suggests the need for larger samples than are typically included in studies of alcohol use and hippocampal volume. Because the existing literature is almost entirely cross-sectional, future research using causally informative study designs is needed to determine whether this association reflects premorbid risk for the development of problematic alcohol use and/or whether alcohol has a neurotoxic effect on the hippocampus.

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Some scholars of nonverbal behavior contend that arm-crossing indicates a defensive orientation to the social environment, but relevant evidence is sparse. Three studies (N = 242) sought to investigate whether there is truth to this idea. Consistent with it, Study 1 found that people reporting higher arm-crossing frequencies scored higher in interpersonal submissiveness and were more inhibited in their social decision-making. To investigate causal processes, Studies 2 and 3 manipulated arm-crossing using a hypothesis-disguising cover story. Study 2 found that arm-crossing activated thoughts of the self's submissiveness and social vulnerability. Study 3 focused on activated strategies for handling potential interpersonal violence. Participants in an arm-crossing condition, relative to a control condition, indicated that they would be more inclined to escape and less likely to attack. The studies converge on the idea that arm-crossing can signify and cause a defensive social orientation. his functional analysis of bared teeth proposed that this expression reflects a hostile disposition with a possible intent to aggress (e.g., by biting). Darwin's (1872) ideas have been influential to the emotions literature, which has sought to establish a correspondence between internal feeling states and their potential outward manifestations (Hess & Thibault, 2009). The vast majority of this work has concentrated on the face, which has an exquisite musculature and is often the focus of attention as people interact with each other (Rosenthal & DePaulo, 1979). A number of stateexpression correspondences have been reasonably well established. As examples, smiles are more likely when people view their circumstances as pleasant and eyebrow furrows are more likely when goal obstacles are perceived (Smith & Scott, 1997).The idea that expressions mirror internal state is Darwin's (1872), but James (1890) added an important extension. According to the extension, adopting a particular expression can create a corresponding internal state. Evidence in support of this idea has come from the facial feedback literature, which has shown, among other effects, that cartoons are perceived as more humorous following a manipulation of smiling relative to frowning (Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988). Facial feedback can also bias information processing in an expression-congruent direction (Hawk, Fischer, & Van Kleef, 2012).The face is highly expressive and it is not surprising that it has received the lion's share of attention in research inspired by Darwin (1872) and James (1890). Yet, nonverbal behavior encompasses far more than just what the face does. People also have trunks, arms, and legs that Arm-Crossing 4 can be configured in a variety of ways, some of which may signal psychological meaning. There are difficulties here, however. There are many positions that the body can take, a large number of them may have no particular meaning, and there is no overarching theoretical framework to guide the intrepid "body language" researcher (Dael,...