Globalization necessitates that we address the negative externalities of international trade and transport, including biological invasion. The US government defines invasive species to mean, ''with regard to a particular ecosystem, a non-native organism whose introduction causes, or is likely to cause, economic or environmental harm, or harm to human, animal, or plant health.'' Here we address the role of early detection of and rapid response to invasive species (EDRR) in minimizing the impact of invasive species on US interests. We provide a review of EDRR's usage as a federal policy and planning term, introduce a new conceptual framework for EDRR, and assess US federal capacities for enacting well-coordinated EDRR. Developing a national EDRR program is a worthwhile goal; our assessment nonetheless indicates that the federal government and its partners need to overcome substantial conceptual, institutional, and operational challenges that include establishing clear and consistent terminology use, strategically identifying and communicating agency functions, improving interagency budgeting, facilitating the application of emerging technologies and other resources to support EDRR, and making information relevant to EDRR preparedness and implementation more readily accessible. This paper is the first in a special issue of Biological Invasions that includes 12 complementary papers intended to inform the development and implementation of a national EDRR program.

The ability of federal agencies to carry out actions or programs is based on their legal authorities. Efforts to improve federal capacities for the early detection of and rapid response to invasive species (EDRR) require careful delineation of legal authorities, regulations, and policies that would enable or limit EDRR. Building on information provided by federal agencies and an inspection of the US Code and the Code of Federal Regulations, we review and identify relevant authorities to determine federal legal capacities, gaps, and inconsistencies to address EDRR. The EDRR process can be examined in the context of four categories, including (1) explicit invasive species authorities, (2) emergency authorities that could be triggered during a crisis or serve as models for enhanced invasive species EDRR authorities, (3) supporting authorities that could be used under agency discretion, and (4) constraining authorities and legal requirements. Although the Plant Protection Act and the Animal Health Protection Act are comprehensive authorities that address the detection of and response to organisms that threaten plant and livestock health, there is no single authority that encompasses EDRR for all invasive species. Rather, there is a patchwork of authorities that unevenly addresses various aspects of EDRR. In addition to gaps in authority, EDRR efforts could be constrained by environmental compliance, as well as subnational governance and private rights. Although some of these gaps could be closed through legislation, others need to be addressed using the discretionary power of federal agencies and their ability to establish cooperation mechanisms with private and subnational entities. Keywords Early detection and rapid response (EDRR) Á Guidance Á Invasive species Á Law Á Legal authority Á Policy Á Regulation Á Statute This document is not a legal opinion. It is not intended to and does not create any rights or benefit enforceable by any party against the US government, nor does it necessarily represent the official position of the US government.

Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) are invasive in Puerto Rico due to a variety of negative economic effects, yet we know very little about their ecological impacts. Because they are herbivorous, defecate intact seeds, move through the forest, and have long gut-passage times, Green Iguanas may affect seed germination and seed dispersal. In summer 2013, a total of 258 Green Iguana scat samples were collected at the Humacao Natural Reserve in southeastern Puerto Rico. Seeds extracted from scat and collected from fruit were planted under common garden conditions using experimental treatments designed to tease apart the effects of feces, fruit, and ingestion on seed germination. Green Iguanas decreased the time for seeds to germinate in Ficus spp. by removing fruit pulp, but had no effect on germination of native Annona glabra seeds. For nonnative P. pterocarpus and Pterocarpus spp., Green Iguanas produced conflicting results, decreasing the percentage of seeds germinating, but at the same time, reducing the time for seeds to germinate. Green Iguanas likely disperse most seeds beyond the canopies of parental tree at our site. Government and economic resources are being used to eradicate Green Iguana populations in Puerto Rico, but the lack of consistent effects of Green Iguanas on seed germination for the plant species consumed at our site complicates generalizing about their ecological effects and developing management plans that minimize negative effects for native plant communities. We recommend additional studies that target both species of particular concern, such as threatened native or invasive species, as well as studies of sensitive habitats in Puerto Rico.

Federal agency programs and associated actions are contingent on having the legal authority to act. There is no single authority established to direct the early detection of and rapid response to invasive species (EDRR). Rather, a patchwork of authorities unevenly addresses various aspects of the suite of EDRR measures. To support the development of national EDRR capacity, it is essential to delineate the federal legal statutes, regulations, and policies that enable or limit invasive species EDRR. Here we set forth general principles and a checklist of actions that agencies can refer to when they construct a more comprehensive EDRR legal and policy framework for addressing invasive species. This guidance is intended to complement the review and analysis of federal authorities contained elsewhere in this issue (Burgos-Rodríguez and Burgiel in Biol Invasions.

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